🇮🇹👍🏻AREZZO: THE CITY AND ITS MILLENARY HISTORY Part II (google translate) According to Titus Livius in 311 BC all the peoples of Etruria, except the Aretines, took up arms and laid siege to Sutri, already an Etruscan city, but then a Roman colony (from 383 BC). It was a war of great proportions for the control of that city which was a sort of "entrance to Etruria". After a series of clashes that continued for some time, in 310 the Romans inflicted a heavy defeat on the Etruscan troops (there is talk of as many as sixty thousand enemies killed or taken prisoner), managing to penetrate deeply into central and internal Etruria. Immediately after, ambassadors were sent to Rome from Perugia (where a Roman garrison was left in the following year), Cortona and Arezzo, which at that time were like the capitals of the peoples of Etruria; a thirty-year truce was granted. However, it has been noted that Arezzo must not have participated directly in the military expedition. The pro-Roman policy of the Aretine oligarchs (the power of Tarquinia was now in a declining phase and in any case the presence of Rome was felt to be closer) also transpires from the events of the servile revolt of 302 BC. In that year, Livy writes, an insurrection broke out in Arezzo against the influential Cilnii family, hated for their enormous wealth, which was about to be expelled from the city. The disturbances spread to other areas of Etruria (Roselle); the dictator Marcus Valerius Maximus succeeded, however, in 301 BC in reconciling the Aretine plebs with the Cilnii. In 294 BC, at the end of a series of clashes between Rome and a Gallo-Etruscan-Samnite coalition, three "very powerful cities, among the most prominent in Etruria", namely Volsinii, Perugia and Arezzo, obtained a forty-year truce and a treaty of alliance, each of them however being fined five hundred thousand asses, for the part they had played in the recent war. The city of Etruscan-Roman origin is, for the most part, visible in the layouts and alignments of the ancient fabric that have been preserved over the centuries by the overlapping of building elements with the sole exception of the major structural changes that have affected the city's summit area, today occupied by the Prato and the adjacent Sangallesca Fortress, and the areas corresponding to the southern foothill districts, completely revolutionized by modern urban growth. The Etruscan city already underwent radical changes and a complete Romanization between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD when the urbs nova took shape that modified the pre-existing layout, imposing the rigorous rules of urban and civic organization of the Roman world. The civitas refounded by the Roman colonists was structured in a large chessboard composed of over fifty insulae to testify to the breadth of its urban development, with villas extra moenia, thermal plants inside and outside the fortified enclosure, with the large amphitheater located outside the city beyond the Castro stream which, in fact, in those areas lapped the southern corner of the urban rectangle. The city was located starting from the top of the hills, later dedicated to S. Donato and S. Pietro, where today the Fortress and the Cathedral are, with the orthogonal axes arranged from north west to south east, and from north east to south west. The new arrangement had partly overlapped the primitive Etruscan village, probably continuing to exist an autonomous aggregation of houses along the Casentino direction. In addition to the major monuments discovered, testified by the imposing remains of the amphitheater to the south and the theater to the north, near the Fortress, the Roman presence lives in a series of finds, columns, plaques, frames scattered and variously reused in the homes and subsequent buildings still visible today in frieze to the curtains of houses and palaces. Of particular interest are the findings of travertine and sedimentary stone base parts belonging to patrician villas, brick cisterns, cyclopean stone drafts of walls, but also residual brick wall structures, such as, for example, the few remains attesting to the progress of the so-called "third circle" of the imperial era, which, together with the very large ceramic collections, constitute an extremely rich and eloquent heritage about the social fortunes experienced by the city until the crisis of the Roman Empire. While the archaeological data of the town are scarce, there are more consistent traces of the numerous and important sanctuaries that housed famous votive offerings, such as the Minerva of Arezzo, the Aratore, the famous bronze Chimera of Arezzo, the Euphronios crater today in the National Archaeological Museum of Florence, and whose buildings were decorated with terracottas of great aesthetic value, due to an established local coroplastic school (Piazza San Jacopo, Via Roma, etc.). The urban area, surrounded by a wall of large stone blocks, corresponded to the large necropolis of Poggio Sole, formed in the 6th century BC and used until the Roman era. The Minerva of Arezzo was found in 1541 in Arezzo, during excavations for a well near the church of San Lorenzo; other excavations in that same area carried out at the beginning of our century have produced notable remains of a large Roman house. The circumstances of the discovery are little known, and the original state of conservation of the monument is unclear, perhaps already in the 16th century the first restorations in bronze, plaster and wood were carried out, probably philologically more correct than the current ones, which were carried out in the 18th century. Thanks to a recent 3D reconstruction it has virtually returned to its original splendor. the Ploughman of Arezzo, a small bronze group found in the 17th century near the disappeared Gagliarde mill, which was located along the Castro. Not far from this area the cardo maximus ended, that is, the main urban axis of the city from north to south, and an artery started that headed towards the sanctuary area of Castelsecco and then continued in the direction of the Bagnoro and Chiana valleys. After its discovery, the Ploughman ended up in the hands of the Jesuit Father Athanasius Kircher, a well-known researcher, scientist and man of letters of the seventeenth century, whose famous archaeological collection donated to the Jesuit Order was acquired by the State between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The Chimera of Arezzo is an Etruscan bronze, probably the work of a team of artisans active in the Arezzo area, who combined a model and stylistic form of Greek or Italiot origin with the technical skill provided by Etruscan workers. It is kept at the National Archaeological Museum of Florence and is 78.5 cm tall. It is the symbol of the Porta del Foro district, one of the four districts of the Giostra del Saracino in Arezzo. The bronze sculptural group represents a lion in an aggressive position with an open mouth and everted claws, with a goat's head emerging from the back and a snake in place of a tail that attacks by biting one of the goat's horns. Euphronios Krater, a large volute vase used to mix wine, honey and water, which belonged to the Bacci Collection and came from a rich and unknown tomb in the Valdichiana, where the Arezzo agrarian aristocracy of the 6th-5th century BC owned luxurious residences. Euphronios was one of the most famous painters and ceramists of ancient Greece, perhaps the most important among those who used the “red-figure on black background” technique. He lived approximately between 535 and 470 BC, starting his career as a decorator of cups and soon becoming famous for his qualities as an unparalleled designer. Castelsecco was once considered the site of the city’s acropolis, the oldest nucleus of Arezzo, but also the location of the Roman legions. After a long period of degradation and abandonment, in 2011 UNESCO included Castelsecco among the treasures of humanity, in particular among its twenty-eight Places Symbols of Peace, precisely because it is dedicated to love and life. The structure appeared in ancient times as an imposing terrace of an almost oval shape that in the late Etruscan age (2nd century BC) housed a sanctuary complex, surrounded on the south side by a monumental semicircular wall structure with an external reinforcement of 14 projecting spurs. But the most significant discovery was the discovery of the remains of a building for shows at the southern end closest to the semicircular wall, in which a theater-temple combination can be found similar to the architectural and cult complexes of the Middle Italic sanctuaries. The theatre stands on a hill, next to a sanctuary, on major communication routes, a meeting point between different people and with a notable quantity of fragments of votive statuettes of swaddled children that refer to the spread of a cult linked to motherhood and childhood. The theatre of Castelsecco therefore represents something new for the whole of Etruria: it is a theatre in all respects, with its own stage building that refers to those of the Greek-Hellenistic type located inside a sanctuary of which it becomes an accessory structure.

🇮🇹👍🏻AREZZO: THE CITY AND ITS MILLENARY HISTORY Part I (google translate) The city itself was born in the Etruscan era, even though a Villanovan settlement on the Arezzo hill already existed more than three thousand years ago: a village of huts most likely in the area of ​​Piazza Sant’Agostino, near the Castro stream. In the 7th century BC Arezzo was officially an Etruscan city. In a short time it became the capital of one of the powerful 12 Lucumonies (dodecapolis) into which the confederation of the Etruscan peoples was divided. Life is concentrated in the current upper part of the hill and is rich and powerful thanks to its industries: the processing of “coral” ceramics, metallurgy and bronze processing, the maximum expression of which is represented by the suggestive statue of the Chimera. The origin of the name of the ancient city of Arezzo is much debated. The Etruscans, the first important civilization to inhabit the city, called it "Aritim", which seems to derive from its position and which would derive from an even older word that describes a settlement built on the side of a hill. Some researchers say it derives from a Ligurian word, others argue that it derives from a Spanish or Sardinian word for its similarity to places in those parts of the world. But the debate is still very heated. What is certain is that the oldest trace of the name "Arezzo" is found in Tarquinia. In the tomb of Larthi Cilnei, a noblewoman married to a high-ranking Tarquinian who belonged to the same gens as Maecenas and daughter of Luvkhumes Cilnies, we read, in the carved epitaph, a phrase that preserves the root of the Etruscan name of Arezzo: "an aritinar meani arsince" "who in his youth saved the Aretines The literary sources provide us with quite numerous references to the events of Etruscan Arezzo. One of the oldest mentions can be found in Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Roman Antiquities, 3.51 ff.), according to whom a group of Etruscan cities, namely "Chiusini, Arretini, Volterrani, Rosellani and also Vetuloniesi", promised and sent contingents to help the Latins who had joined forces to block the expansionist aims of the king of Rome Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (616-579 BC). The latter, after the victories already obtained over the Latins, of whom he took several oppida, would also have succeeded as victor over the joint Etruscan-Latin forces (l.c., 3, 53). From the fragments of the triumphal fasti of Rome we know that Tarquinius Priscus celebrated his first triumph, de Latineis, on the first day of the month of Quintilis (July) of a year between 598 and 595 BC; the second triumph (dated to the first of April 588 BC) was precisely de Etrusceis and is thus, undoubtedly, referred to the events narrated by Dionysius. The news of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, dated (588 BC ca.), conceals a clue to the beginnings of an acquisition of autonomy from Chiusi by the agricultural center of Arezzo (in the list of Dionysius the Aretini are mentioned immediately after the Chiusini). The same strategic position of Arezzo, at the crossroads of particularly beaten itineraries and in connection with the main settlements of the North, does not hinder the idea of ​​an early growth in importance of the center, already in the 6th century BC. The news handed down to us on the ancestors of Gaius Cilnius Maecenas (C. Maecenas L. f. C. n.) are a valid testimony to the fact that Arezzo experienced a royal period, presumably lasting in the 5th perhaps until the beginning of the 4th century BC. Although it is now certain that Maecenas was a gentilic (fem. Maecenatia) and not a cognomen, we know that the famous friend and collaborator of Augustus belonged, on his mother's side, to the most noble Etruscan family of Arezzo (the Cilnii, precisely: Tacitus in the Annals calls him Gaius Maecenas or also Cilnius Maecenas). It is also known that the genealogical tree of Maecenas was displayed in the atrium of his villa on the Esquiline; moreover both Horace and Propertius celebrated their intelligent benefactor as «more noble than the Etruscans» (Lydorum quidquid Etruscos / incoluit finis nemo generosior est te); «offspring of the Tyrrhenian kings» (Tyrrhena regum progenies); «knight of the blood of the Etruscan kings» (eques Etrusco de sanguine regum). There is also a famous passage from Horatian Satires (I, 6, 3-4) in which it is stated that the maternal and paternal ancestors of Maecenas once commanded great armies (avus tibi matemus fuit atque patemus / olim qui magnis legionis imperitarent); regarding these verses, excessive emphasis has been given to the fact that matemus precedes patemus (with the usual speculations on the alleged Etruscan matriarchy), without taking into account much simpler explanations, such as metrical requirements (the long a of matemus). Therefore, we have evidence of how the Cilnii (Etr. Cilnie, feminine Cilnei) once reigned in Arezzo, perhaps within the framework of a dynastic succession system. After the monarchic phase, the city must have experienced, in the 4th century BC, the establishment of an oligarchic regime, similar to that of the other Etruscan city-states. A small number of families of principes or dominions (among which the gens Cilnia still stood out), large landowners, held all the power, with access to the new "republican" magistracies, from which the lower social class was certainly excluded, whose members are designated by Roman sources with the improper term of servi (i.e. 'slaves'). In reality, an attempt was made to translate into Latin an Etruscan term (probably etera) that indicated people with the rights of freedom and citizenship, but not nobles. They were therefore not slaves, but constituted the vast group of the subaltheme class: in fact, although they enjoyed legal conditions that were certainly better than those of a slave, however the limitations of the capacity of public and private law (including exclusion from the exercise of public office and from intermarriage with the wealthy classes) and their material dependence on the dominions, as subordinate workers (bound by very close client ties), made them, in the eyes of the Romans, more similar to slaves than to free men. Dionysius of Halicarnassus uses the Greek term penestai with greater finesse (a word that etymologically means 'poor' and which in Thessaly indicated an intermediate class between free men and slaves). Between the two classes of the dominions and the Etruscan servants, at least from the middle of the 4th century BC, strong contrasts and frictions developed, comparable to the struggles between patricians and plebeians in Rome. In the individual Etruscan city-states the conflict nevertheless experienced different dynamics. In Arezzo, it seems, the solution to these conflicts was not pursued through a series of gradual concessions to the lower class, probably preferring the "hard line" of a entrenchment of the aristocratic class in its privileges. There is news of several revolts of the lower classes, all suppressed through the intervention of external armies, evidently called by the Arezzo nobility. A first wave of rebellion must be the one remembered in the Latin eulogy of Aulus Spurinna (etr. Aule Spurinas), who held the supreme magistracy of Tarquinia three times (that is, he was zilath); the intervention of the Tarquinian army to quell the bellum servile of Arezzo must be dated around 358 BC, or shortly after, with Mario Torelli's interpretative positions on the Spurinna remaining generally valid. In this period Tarquinia was in fact the hegemonic Etruscan city and the Aretine oligarchy clearly recognized this leading role, asking for the help of the Tarquinian armies to block intolerable upheavals in the political-social balance. The marriage mentioned above between LaIthi Cilnei and Arnth Spurina is tangible proof of the alliance of the aristocracies of Arezzo and Tarquinia.

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