7. Behavioral Genetics II

[@lizishmathuser]

This is absolutely amazing. This entire lecture series is a total gift for those of us who don't have the means to attend a Stanford class. Sapolsky is brilliant and this material will tie in nicely to the courses I'm taking in community college. Thank you for making this public!

[@peterepete3571]

So, not too sure how I landed here, and I don't have anything important to say, but in my perusal of the comments, you mentioned your taking community college classes, and then I noticed this was 2 years ago and figured you'd be done by now with you classes and wanted to know how that worked out for you? Did you finish? are you still in class and pursuing the same thing?

[@lizishmathuser]

@@peterepete3571 ​ @Pete Repete Hi! Well, funny way to end up in a comments section. But yes, I did finish with a 4.0 and went on to a university in Colorado. There I score two different internships - one with NOAA doing GIS work, the other with the Ecology and Evolutionary Biology department, AND (because I had the chance to create an independent project) I joined forces with NOAA again, but this time their Space Weather Prediction Center. :) I'm considered a senior now but I'm going to double major and stretch it out an extra year. I was hired on as an intern yesterday for the EPA in the Spring. :) I did ok. Sapolsky's lectures are still one of my favorite things. What I'm looking at now, in terms of graduate programs is studying how space weather and heliobiology affect the evolution of life on earth in different mediums. I hope to be one day on the edge of astrobiology.

[@chetansirisai]

@Jon Doh! Hey there

[@MB-jy2oi]

@@peterepete3571 Same here. I was watching a beekeeping video, when this series was suggested by You Tube. It has been 45 years since I last read about genetics, this was before I took another professional path and I thought, ah, well, lets see how this knowledge has developed. Now I am hooked. It is like meeting your high school sweetheart at retirement age. This science is amazing. The professor is even more.

[@themysteryloungecic4924]

Get his book behavior, it's awesome.

[@dondovahkiin7899]

"By controlling for the environment, you have removed your ability to see the role of environment " That's such a great point.

[@rahulmandal7142]

"When you look at things like juggling your DNA just when you are making new neurons, what you see over and over is what human genes are about most dramatically is coding for ways in which you have freedom from the effects of genetics" Totally blew my mind. When you end a lecture on that note its hard not to immediately move to the next one. So thankful to Stanford for bringing this up.

[@Red1Revival]

yes this is the moment that did it for me, wow!

[@4philipp]

I think you need 24-48 hours between lectures just to process all the information and implications.

[@mattiassollerman]

They should investigate plant IQ in the environment of my home, as they all tend to die. And please don't come and say the common factor is me. They die even if I'm away for a month.

[@staffannas7125]

+Mattias Sollerman Humour++

[@dfghj241]

i know it is a joke, but i wonder how hot is the climate where you live.

[@hightidesmrforever2themoon449]

Mattias Sollerman, lol

[@awhodothey]

If you can't rule out your effect on the first hour of their existence, then you can't prove that the plants who had longer living parents lived 19x longer when you were gone because of genetics. They might have lived longer because of mitochondria. Or because all of the ones with longer living parents were placed in "ear" shot of beethovens 9th Symphony on a loop. Or because a certain, particularly high water content bug preferred to die in their pot.

[@yddub111]

wait..... they are supposed to last longer than a month? i thought it was because i was just buying the cheap ones

[@ZachRose88]

This exemplifies the true spirit of education. Thank you Stanford for saving us from having to watch television and allow our brains to melt away.

[@mick1399]

Incredible ability to lecture without reference to notes. Astonishing memory along with knowledge.

[@NatalieKehr]

If you look carefully he does spread notes across the desk top and sometimes even glances at them. But he has been teaching all his life. In one of his interviews he says that when doing post grad work in an institution which didn't let him teach he got a part-time job at another college so that he could teach.

[@jillmarie180]

Well said❤️

[@ericheisler5351]

I’m sure he gives the same lecture 3x a week.

[@TeddyKrimsony]

he's been teachhing for decades, you too would memorize the stuff with that amount of repetition

[@arthursulit]

Russkie Metro Dogs behavioral vs molecular genetics review, prenatal environment Lamarckian evolution Modern methods: 80s, find diff in phenotypes Genetic Marker method, find a family w disease hemophelia, etc Bioethical considerations Sequencing genomes 17:00 Microarrays, Bioinformatics TL, macromutation Basil Crescent hormone, mice v monogamous v polygamous Genes for autism, social propensity BDNF brain-derived neurotrophic factor trains amygala to be anxious or fearful Dopamine, pleasure anticipation, novelty craving NP 31:00 Chance: Brownian motion, mitochondria 40:00 Heritability 1:09:00 25 yr study, Duke U, heritability of aggression, anti-social (formerly sociopathic) vs abuse by cold distant moms 1:22:00 Math & verbal performance vs gender vs nation / environment

[@dfghj241]

+Arthur Sulit thanks alot for taking notes!

[@benodell7906]

This comment needs to be higher. Good work 👍

[@tatvichheda]

Has anybody actually managed to find the printed notes which Prof. Sapolsky had distributed back then?

[@suyang4505]

Nice

[@fiction3298]

nice :)

[@haxyquinn]

Can we all appreciate this guy's intelligent humor

[@clebdad]

Yes.

[@Class-dw5jh]

Yes.

[@ingridbortolottigomes3851]

Yes.

[@inert.8440]

Yes.

[@jangzterrizer9405]

yes

[@phoggee]

this guy is giving me an excuse to blame my parents all over again

[@chillmegachill]

Sad and true

[@olgarome3170]

I actually feel the opposite: since there is no free will, and only environment and biology - could they do differently really?...

[@user-uf7ve4sr4r]

no free will = they couldn't do any different. also if you blame your parents for your failures you also have to credit them for your successes

[@user-uf7ve4sr4r]

@Maria Callous wtf?

[@jongrey8819]

you didn't actually listen did you?

[@ibn_klingschor]

"We'll come back to the amygdala, don't panic." subtle pun

[@agimasoschandir]

Yes, what we need is not TLC but a bit of CBT

[@wtfhowbizarre1946]

what does this have to do with the Amygadala?

[@wtfhowbizarre1946]

i have the CD-r with my MRI.

[@wtfhowbizarre1946]

i have mtDNA A3243G and my doctor knows it.

[@What_was_wrong_w_jst_our_names]

ahhhh sooo fucking good. I wonder if he’s been saving that.

[@kevinlopez9883]

Just to vent, this camera person is blowing my mind on how they decide to not show the visuals on the board that Sapolsky's directly talking about. They're problably not even listening, just thinking 'gotta keep his head in the middle, gotta keep his head in the middle, gotta keep his head in the middle, gotta keep his head in the middle.'

[@Muskar2]

Kevin Lopez Yeah, I'm guessing the camera men are just bored, following the head by intuition because it's easy. They're probably thinking about something completely different.

[@someonethirsty1957]

Could be a tracking program.

[@hexonatapeloop]

is it filmed statically wide angle then edited digitally maybe

[@JessyFerrari]

Exactly! I'm here for the cute puppies, man...

[@yasminafarih3681]

I can see myself doing this XD

[@2snipe1]

This one kid has been coughing for the past four lectures! I hope they get better =(

Seven years ago it was allowed to cough during lectures. Not anymore.

[@nikhil789ify]

@ 👍 be a

[@nikhil789ify]

@ 👍🙏👍🙏 your email address 🙏

[@kimcooper87]

How do you know it's the same kid?

[@fractalsauce]

For real, shit's gettin on my nerves

[@danielevans5864]

I think this dude breathes through his ears. Never pauses. I took 6 semesters of biology, chemistry, pathophysiology and medicinal chemistry each and 2 semesters of physics in college and honestly don't think I'd know how to takes notes in these lectures.

[@jacobdieffenbach2375]

Voice recorder/rendering his board models in shorthand.

[@kimcooper87]

He tells you at the beginning not to bother taking notes because he talks too fast. but he does hand out notes to the lectures -- or at least he handed them out long ago when I used to go to his lectures: now if you're in his class you get them online.

[@Coeurlarme]

@@kimcooper87 ohhh that’s nice. One of my favorite teacher in high school was doing the same, really helpful, wish more teachers would do that

[@randomstranger8081]

I watch at 2x speed lol

[@mangos2888]

Same! I have 6 semesters of college chemistry, one year of A&P, one semester of college physics, and 2 semesters of psychology in my undergrad. Granted, 2 of the chemistry courses were related to food chemistry, but still, ochem and biochem were prerequisites for each. This lecture would have blown me away to try and take notes in. I hope all these students got to rewatch these lectures in the early ‘00. Their tuition certainly deserved it! It’s amazing and overwhelming all at once. Excuse me while I replay this….

[@ezequielprimera6812]

Sapolsky putting every piece of information right where it has to be, and so fluently and undertstandable. My brain tickles after watching a video of him

[@mangos2888]

If I were taking this class back in the day, I would’ve needed this lecture recorded. It is SO rich in content, I’d want to listen to it multiple times.

[@liafuentes326]

These classes are so amazing! Thank you for sharing all this knowledge Standford University and Mr. Sapolsky, the studies mentioned about the importance of the environment related to gender performance are very revealing!

[@sonjatheierl1]

Robert Sopolsky is one of thee most talented pro's I have ever encounted I cannot thank him enough. It takes alot to catch and keep my attention and he did it hands down..........SQUIRREL

[@sk5381]

He is the Bob Ross of biology

[@thomasrichardson5425]

"number of fingers is massively affected by genes but has 0% heritability, and tendency to wear earrings has 100% heritability despite being entirely cultural" These examples perfectly capture the difference between "trait x has high heritability" and "trait x is genetic"

[@thomaslewis3170]

@Phi6er nope I think you missed the point

[@hispanofilos]

@Phi6er The real problem is that we don't read the scientific papers, we read the media version "translated" by a scientifically illiterate journalist.

[@nollhypotes]

@Phi6er I agree that scientists can often be quite bad at considering how the terminology they use will be interpreted by laymen, but to suggest that they are purposely misleading the public for attention is silly.

[@nollhypotes]

@Phi6er So we have narrowed it down to pop scientists at least. Anyway, there's a difference between misleading and simplifying.

[@nollhypotes]

@Phi6er Wait so is the underlying science real or is it all a big scam?

[@severalpens]

I'm going to invent an app that identifies when I stop paying attention and pauses the youtube video.

[@kaushalkumarshukla25]

have a pupil dilation detectors embedded in your app, using the front cam. As soon as the pupils are relaxed pause the video and play some scary sounds that should bring back the focus.

[@FourDogs1111]

It would be quite useful for meditation

[@dalep.2508]

It's been nearly a year, have you done it?

[@severalpens]

@@dalep.2508 There's been some delays. I might have to outsource it to @kaushal shukla and @Jernej Kavka. Check back next year.

[@fionafiona1146]

I'd like better integration with Bluetooth devices (button mapping to the same thing across the desktop and mobile version, skipping adds ect.)...not your project but where else would I whine?

[@marvelikov1]

I like how theres a continuous trashing of things he just taught. Watching 7 of these in 3 days probably is a little skewed though, as the actual trashing happened over years or decades. But it really speaks to how little we actually know, even as I am aware of his approach I keep coming to conclusions in my head like "well, this explains X" and not 5 minutes later hes like - let me just wipe the board clean. again. Really appreciate the uploads! Thank you! Man, this Internet thing is cool.

[@randomstranger8081]

Hahahahaha i can relate

[@MC-tl5bf]

yeah like how he cited autism being more common in males and simon baron cohens extreme male brain theory about autism but those arent thought to be true anymore and its only been 10 years since these lectures

[@Mitchell_is_smart._You2bs_dumb]

I like turtles

[@Friemelkubus]

Thank you Robert Sapolsky. I will never be able to look at genetics in the same way ever again. You completely changed my views on the matter and for that I salute you.

[@Diverse_Interests]

This lecture has great critical thinking skills taught which can help people in daily life even if they are not science specialists. It is important to know proper ways to do science but also understand the things you need to check for when you verify information from a study.

[@jason2715]

Loving this series. Behavioral Genetics I & II were pretty difficult to get through though. I think the big take away from them is genetics vs environment is complicated, so don't get too excited about correlation graphs.

[@armoda1057]

Nature is the major systematic force that makes us who we are. Nurture is essentially irrelevant for accounting for individual differences. I’m starting the second lecture now, hopefully it’s better than the first. I love Sapolsky, but his presentation of behavioral genetics and trans-generational epigenetics was appalling. He made it appear that DNA differences aren’t that powerful while epigenetics is the most compelling part of the story. Heritability accounts for the majority of differences between people, and the environmental effects are almost always confounded by genetic influence. Nurture is irrelevant, and the non-shared environment has not been tractable as a systematic factor. Read “Blueprint” by Plomin and “Innate” by Kevin Mitchell if you want the most accurate and up-to-date analyses of behavioral genetics.

[@violet-trash]

@@armoda1057 The way I see it is that genes determine potentials and environment determines how those potentials manifest.

[@ohhhhhhmygodbecky]

‘Nature or nurture?’ “isn’t wrong simply because the answer is nearly always “both,” or because the categories themselves are flawed, but also because once you understand that there is one common evolutionary goal, getting precise about mechanism is less important than understanding why a trait came to be... ...The false nature versus nurture dichotomy is disruptive, as it interferes with a more nuanced understanding of what we are and the evolutionary forces that have brought us here.” -Bret & Heather Weinstein, "A Hunter Gatherer's Guide to the 21st Century"

[@DamienPalmer]

@@armoda1057 Sounds like Plomin has been widely discredited, and by way of arguments that in their essence are contained in this very lecture. Perhaps instead of being appalled, give this one another listen.

[@llewellynjones1115]

@@armoda1057 I think you've missed the point of this lecture. The are plenty of lectures here on KZbin by Plomin which present a far more balanced view than what you have presented.

[@violet-trash]

I love how unbiased this guy is, he's making all these arguments for the influences of environment while constantly acknowledging the effects of genes. He's a rare gem in the "pick as side" cultural era. 💎

[@Deviliumrei]

This lecture started a little bit "slowly" but towards the end there were some really interesting and important points!

[@melissadistante]

If every professor were like Robert Sapolsky I’d be taking college courses for fun

[@Merrypotter473]

Blessings on you, Prof Dr Sapolsky. Your work is a welcome antidote to output of behavioural genetics.

[@anshikagupta4931]

His Humor is so well-timed and intelligent that sometimes people pass up a chance to laugh because the important information is just around the corner - what a genius way of captivating the audience !

[@strawbale2023]

When he's drawing one of his charts ... "Does this look familiar by now? No? Ok, so that was at thanksgiving" :D

[@saraaguiarsimao968]

this is my most absolute favourite teacher

[@bloodynice4944]

I don't know why youtube recommended me this , but i will never regret it . I want to become a doctor and this will help me a lot .

[@Mister.Psychology]

Hi Stanford. I have just finished my masters degree in psychology and am currently unemployed. I will gladly record and edit lectures for you for free as I have a lot of free time on my hands. Please say yes. I know the internet is hungry for these kind of videos in better quality. With a non-clicking camera-man.

[@peegeebeedee4052]

You Can Record ME Dribbling A Basketball And Shooting A Basketball If You Don't Get The Stanford Job.

[@Mister.Psychology]

The transportation cost is not on me.

[@peegeebeedee4052]

Jurij Fedorov I Said If You Don't Get The Stanford Job You Could Always Videotape ME Dribbling A Basketball And Shooting A Basketball. I Can Pay For Your Trip To A Basketball Court Near ME Where You Could Meet ME And Film ME Dribbling And Shooting A Basketball. Or I Could Just Meet You At Stanford And Have You Film ME There.

[@Mister.Psychology]

Haha... if you can pay for my ticket from Denmark, then I will film you dribling a ball around.

[@Xasperato]

I don't think they read the comments on these videos.

[@Maria-vg6bx]

These lectures are so eye opening and mindblowing its beautiful. Love Professor S

[@briseboy]

After some physics, and behavioral science, you get to intuit that Brownian motion is not random per se, but stochastic - a result of complex interdependence (Gleick's book can help you intuit, which I why, I think, that Sapolsky put it in required reading). The intuition can be followed up by studying complex statistics ( it now requires complex algorithms - computer programs, instead of the more basic stats we get undergrad). I guess this is why any team working on biological behavior has to include a total number-crunching computer programmer or three. Einstein's stuff on Brownian shows that there is a tendency to remain within some limits - this, too, is important to remember in genetic and biological science: that limits occur, including the one which Sapolsky has only just touched - optimality vs. the complex constraints he is going through. The use of "infinite" does not mean what many think it means. Categorical thinking, warned against at the beginning, is a cognitive heuristic; generalization can lead to missing variation. Just to illustrate both overgeneralization, and use a generalization heuristic better, Moscow dogs which he mentioned are several different groups. One, the wolflike furry-tail, is the one most avoidant (NOT in subways) of humans. There are social dogs who read individual (relevant) human characteristics, more and less territorial ones, subway socialites, subway travelers just using it as do pipples. By the way, wolves vary in the adaptive traits these dogs show - I study wolves, with some focus on individual differences; none of the differences mentioned in material about these dogs are foreign to wolves, although they are generally avoidant of humans (humans are death to all wild, self-willed animals. One recent wolf in Germany, just watching, evaluating, learning, a basic wolf trait, was, of course, shot by official fiat due to humans' idea that anything having teeth not running away from them is dangerous. Overactive amygdalae in your species...). Wolves use BDNF too, but their lifespan is only 4k-5k days, 130 to maybe 190 moons, at best, in the real world. This means their evaluation skills are more quickly developed, and must be more accurate - wolves have no time for psychopaths, Machiavellians, the large capacity humans indulge in for complex deception and betrayal. They can recognize these things, when presented by humans - at least the ones who survive it.

[@PCSExponent]

Please recall that NOTHING is actually random. Not even random number generators.

[@mrtertg2603]

🤭🤫

[@mangos2888]

Come talk to people in MN and WI. They have wild, irrational fears of wolves. It’s heartbreaking 💔

[@jizzosh1233]

Professor Sapulsky. I found you when I left KZbin unattended. The topics you discussed literally woke me up from sleep. Thank you!

[@joycelyn765]

Why am I paying so much for tuition fees when this stuff is free?! Mind blown in every lecture!

[@awhodothey]

Because the government guarantees the loans that the bank gives, thereby increasing the supply of funds available for degrees, which increases the amount universities can charge for a degree, which increases the number of people who have degrees, flooding the market with degrees, which decreases the scarcity and therfore value of every degree, which causes employers to set a degree as the minimum requirement of employment as a minimum test even where the degree contained nothing of direct benefit to the company.

[@TheNoodlyAppendage]

Internet watchers don't get to see the cute puppy/fox pictures, we also dont get the reading list or other materials, or access to the prof.

[@NateB]

// , Don't you want your expensive obedience training certificate?

[@johnries5593]

Because all you get here are the lectures. It then becomes entirely up to you to figure out what books to read, what homework to assign yourself (including papers), how to evaluate the work you actually did, and how to persuade anyone that you have actually learned something. You also don't get to ask the prof questions. TANSTAAFL.

[@wtfhowbizarre1946]

Companies that hire you, care more about your resources to pay for an education and your patience resources, and obedience resources than your KZbin selection. Cold hard Truth. A twice graduate, UCSC and Kaplan Online University.

[@CaptainCrunch696]

where ever the beard goes, is where the camera goes

[@falstocat]

I love reading comments complaining about free content on KZbin.

[@Muskar2]

Jeffrey Soto Why does it matter that it's free?

[@craftycriminalistwithms.z3053]

Jeffrey Soto I directly pay KZbin $15.99 a month to have no ads. Those who do directly pay are still a customer paying by watching ads, by being a consumer of said ads. I also pay some KZbin names I personally enjoy more than normal by I.E. Patreon and the like. So I end up pay about $46.00 a month for “free content”.

[@timkinney8719]

@@craftycriminalistwithms.z3053 Well, whose fault is that? It's not Sapolsky's fault that you pay for free content...

[@ashbrady588]

I’m just here for the free comments.

[@fionafiona1146]

US tuition makes people think of money when they receive education beyond what's reasonable (buying his books would be reasonable unless it's mandated).

[@stavrogin4241]

anyone else taking a 5 min break whenever he tells, in real time? :'D

[@kimlink6854]

No

[@editname2302]

No

[@rafaelespinarlopez182]

no

[@aivarasmuliuolis318]

LMAO these trolls in the comments. Of course we do take a break when our professor says so..

[@catherinemcmillan6111]

Yes, sometimes till the next evening :-D

[@lindseylim8026]

I feel so lucky to be attending lessons all over again :D And with this amazing amazing professor :D The only challenge is, where do I start? What do I watch next? lol ...

[@Tio_Nel]

here is the playlist kzbin.info/www/bejne/hH_RenqebsxpnKM

[@LaboriousCretin]

Great set of videos so far. Genetic dispositions and social constructions that can play on genetic dispositions in ways. Genetic mutations and rates and mechanisms. Genetic traits and environmental factors. Keep up the good work.

[@GreatWhite00000]

The extent to which he builds rock solid purely-genetic arguments just to utterly destroy them to pieces is remarkable

[@pincmin]

·nature/nurture has left the chat·

[@haxyquinn]

I can't stress enough how much I like this guy classes XD and I don't even know what i'm doing here I'm just have a bachelor's degree in translation studies and I'm from Venezuela XDXD

[@9wyrd9]

I know why you show up here... it's for us. thanks, Sapolsky.

[@alpine0607]

I had a cramp in my stomach after this lecture. You just trashed anything and everything I did know and used for my thinking process. Thanks for doing that ;)

[@4philipp]

Perhaps it’s that predefined way of thinking and our willingness or reluctance to revamp it that makes all the difference in our lives. Or it’s impact is hardly measurable.

[@ogunsiron2]

2:30 i think that one reason that selecting for behavioral traits also carries along traits relating to coat colors and hair curliness is that the brain and the skin both start out as part of the embryonic ectoderm.

[@awhodothey]

That's sexist.

[@tap1799]

wow this is mind blowing. I just wish, that earlier in life, I could have come across a teacher like this. Imagine everyone being educated by people as enthused as this. But I guess that is a big point in what he is saying.

[@neillamas8929]

Short summary: Genes are the default settings of humans. Since we are very adaptive to our environment (cf. epigenetics), we get far away from our default settings very rapidly. Therefore, genes do not define much of the variability between us but for people evolving in very similar contexts. In this lecture, he proceeds to give various example of the interactions between genes, environment and their respective effects on human behavior

[@timeless8]

Please get a better camera person next time. Specifically: 1. Point camera at the diagram the lecturer is pointing at. 2. Point camera at the audience when lecturer asks them to raise hands. 3. Point camera at picture that lecturer puts up (think Arctic Fox from previous lecture). Otherwise, really enjoying this lecture series.

[@MJGalvanMusic]

It could be automated to follow Dr. Sapolsky.... idk just possible.

[@markovichglass]

+Manuel Galvan I doubt in 2010, then had the algorithm figured out on controlling solenoids to follow a person, this badly. it's definitely a person controlled camera. random zooming or paning. They just follow object(spaced out). the topic is beautiful, the lecture is amazing, the camera guy, he has some learning to do. maybe that's why he is there, he is learning his camera abilities? peace and love

[@ideljenny]

Mark Ovich I took biochemistry in 2010 in Sweden. The lectures where really early in the morning and the class was huge. Prof used a webcam with face tracking to film the lectures so those who liked mornngs showed up at the lecture and the ones who would rather study evenings watched the videos that got uploaded 3 hours later. Like I said, the camerawork was automated and it looked exactly like this. Weird pannng, slow actual reaction with proff walking out of the screen etc etc. This might very likely be automated.

[@byronarnaoutoglou8425]

As for the students, it's a matter of privacy which needs consent. I know that because at the beginning of anothe class, the professor asked the student to give consent in a legally binding form. Sapolsky had given his consent, his students had not.

[@NatalieKehr]

I was delighted that years ago I had seen, and remembered a BBC program about the Arctic Foxes

[@latinaalma1947]

ARound. 1:15 to end genetic & environmental factors in 1) depression 2) in aggression followed thereafter by genetic ie Y chromosome & environmental factors in 1) math ability in 2)verbal ability.

[@bilgetuncel3129]

1:24:31 A woman studying in a physics PhD program in Turkey here. It is so sad to see my country listed as one of the worst. I would like to think the situation is improved since then. But still. :(

[@kyoungd]

This is so cool. So packed with awesome information. This stuff is a bit more difficult than previous sections, but the payoff is great. Go Dr Sapolsky. Go Stanford.

[@eleonoraformatoneeszczepan8807]

Stanford University Lecture 7. Behavioural Genetics II Robert Sapolsky 1:03:46 min ... "PKU" ... 1:04:51 min ... "labels on ... food" ... "phenylalanine free diet" ... 1:05:38 min ... "environmental intervention" ... "reduced heritability" 1:09:37 min ... 1:11:12 min ... "translating that into English .... " 1:11:28 min ... "what we're seeing over and over again is the only way to answer it, or, over and over it is, going to be a, it depends, it depends on the environment." 1:11:43 min .. "ultimately" "the only really truly scientific way you can answer a question like that is, what does this gene do in this particular environment." 1:12:11 min ... "quote" ... "summarises this entire point ... " 1:12:31 min ... "there is no such thing as a gene influence outside the context of an environmental interaction." 1:14:39 min ... "ok, you're an epidemiologist ... the answer is: what sort of environment ... " 1:18:09 min ... 1:20:54 min ... 13:52 min ... "really really major room for things going wrong in terms of it being then applied clinically" 14:33 min ... "bioethics" 15:50 min ... "actually finding the gene" 32:09 min ... "chance" 32:38 min ... "Brownian motion" (MIT OpenCourseWare 18. Itõ Calculus Instructor: Choongbum Lee kzbin.info/www/bejne/kGbcg4CDi7p2a9k 0:50 min ... Brownian ...) ... ? 50:29 min ... 50:40 min ... (B.t.w. completely non sequitur, cute accent after, "the only".)

[@eleonoraformatoneeszczepan8807]

Taking a completely wild lunge, trip and fall, smack down on the floor in the dark, i.e. me being me and putting a foot most likely not on a line while not having optimal proprioception, and making a something of myself, culminating in blushing profusely, but .... I'm curious ... has something like PKU have anything to do with the following .... 0:14 min ... "this conflict began nearly 20 years ago" 0:16 min ... "2443 US Military KI" 0:19 min ... "3800 contractor and DoD civillian KI" 0:23 min ... "1144 allied troops killed in action" 0:27 min ... "over 30000 veteran suicide since 9'11" 1:44 min ... "infrastructures needs did not leave 10 to 15000 Americans, stranded." 1:50 min ... "climate change did not cause this catastrophe." 1:53 min ... "combat is not a power point briefing." 1:55 min ... "American lives are at stake." 1:58 min ... "get our countrymen out of Afghanistan." 2:01 min ... "the mission is only complete, when they're out, not one minute before." Approximately, 2500 military killed in action compared to 30000 veteran suicides ... 1:12 ... ? For every military person who was killed in action, 12 veterans committed suicide? It looks like more contractors and civilians were killed in action than those in the military? Do they exhibit suicide rates similar to veterans? It doesn't sound like they do? What is the difference? 'GOP Lawmaker: 'No American Should Be Willing To Tolerate' Conduct Of Afghanistan Withdrawal' Forbes Breaking News kzbin.info/www/bejne/mYbKp6WJbJ2fmMU Also, I don't have a reference for the following, however, I thought I heard it said in the last day or so, on some media yt video or fb, that President Biden mentioned, his son and other military personnel, who returned from Iraq and had some sort of brain complications within a year or around a year later?

[@eleonoraformatoneeszczepan8807]

I updated my yt name ...

[@twrk139]

@@eleonoraformatoneeszczepan8807 is this incoherent rambling about a dozen topics supposed to mean anything? Why are you quoting random video parts? I don't even know why I'm asking, you're probably a bot.

[@eleonoraformatoneeszczepan8807]

@@twrk139 are you a bot? What's up with language these days. Some people, I don't know.

[@twrk139]

@@eleonoraformatoneeszczepan8807your comments really sound like they're coming from a schizophrenic

[@CaliforniaGirl-qk5kq]

Great series of lectures. I wish the readings were included in description of lectures.

[@ארזעמיפייגלין]

Where can i access the referenced extended notes (at about 7:00) for the lecture?

[@roobookaroo]

You start the video. And, from the very first instant, what strikes you is the irresistible flow of verbal energy coming from our Incredibly Learned Professor. It's as if his brain is under pressure from all the ideas packed in there, all jostling for expression, and opening his mouth acts at once as a welcome vent for the pressure to explode and dilate in the free air. The term that comes to mind is the ancient Greek word PNEUMA, the blast of breath that projects the inspired soul of a prophet. Of course the prophet here is spreading the message of science, of demonstrable knowledge. Notice also the inseparable physical energy, how the professor’s compulsive rhetorical outpour is supported by an incessant back and forth pacing, with emphasis projected through sweeping arm gestures. It is the same source of energy that globally activates the legs, the arms, the voice and the brain, driving the words out and fuelling the body’s obsessive motion. The total effect has a certain theatrical power, and keeps the students awake and hanging to every word from the start to the end. A distant modern echo of Aristotle's style of giving his lessons ceaselessly walking through the gardens of his Lyceum in Athens, surrounded and followed by his mesmerized students.

[@karandeepsingh1656]

Do you have an English Literature background? Your words sound good. Are you an artist?

[@NiftyShifty1]

The kid filming does a very diligent job following the speaker, but never zoomed out to show the figures the speaker is drawing. For Christ sake, look to the right!

[@thomasmiller6031]

He’s very entertaining, and keep her attention.

[@garywheeler7039]

One small criticism of the camraperson, at about 1:03 the professor's head is being tracked well, but we can't see the information he introduces he introduces on the board. There was a similar problem on an earlier lecture mentioning tame and untame foxes, when the image above the board was not visible. It would be handy in many cases to be able to zoom out or radically change the view to see context, audience reaction, things like that. I realize this isn't a tv production though.

[@bokchoiman]

After reading a few comments about the bad camerawork and still being unconvinced, I finally see what you people are talking about. A third of the information is missing!

[@xstensl8823]

this series really exposes the American myth that anyone can achieve the American Dream. thank you

[@4philipp]

That’s not a scientifically accurate statement

[@xstensl8823]

@@4philipp the American myth is a dream, you have to be asleep to believe in it.

[@erikziak1249]

1:02:15 The camera operatos should be shot for NOT SHOWING what is on the whiteboard. I am really mad now.

[@fionafiona1146]

It's probably in the study notes, someone uploaded...I lost the link tho

[@fionafiona1146]

It's probably in the study notes, someone uploaded...I lost the link tho

[@thedragonlady6661]

Sapolsky is a truly beautiful person. This lecture made me happy

[@lismarcel]

I stan Sapolsky and I've been trying to make my students watch these lectures🙂

[@marcotondadecodificabiolog6343]

these lessons are extraordinary and confirm other studies on human behavior ... fantastic and great Sapolsky Teacher

[@aivarasmuliuolis318]

"Is there a gene for picking at grubs or is there a gene for if you are really tall and you peck at grubs and people don't make fun of you" - I need this one bad

[@jakecarlo9950]

"What human genes are about most dramatically is coding for ways in which you have freedom from the effects of genetics." The content of this lecture is so important, such a badly needed counter to the decades of crypto-eugenics we've been getting in the America of DSMs III-V, sociobiology and the human genome cash-grab. Really thanking heaven for Dr. Sapolsky having at least some reach into the popular mind.

[@NathanOkun]

If most of Stanford teachers are of his and Susskind's level, then this is the best school in the world! I went to UCLA and I had a few exceptional teachers, including Dr. David Sanchez who was beyond exceptional (DEAD POET'S SOCIETY-level teacher in Differential Equations, of all things!), but I have seen a lot of very good Stanford teachers in these KZbin videos. Great!

[@AgentPedestrian]

The moment he mentioned vasopressin being social I was waiting for the autism comment. I was not disappointed.

[@Costas17G]

Does anyone have a reference for the study he mentions near 1:22 ? The one published at Science, relating gender inequalities and math scores performance?

[@karenedonald]

Mothers are generally teaching young boys certain skills (protection / providing) and girls another set (beauty / nurturing) she gives boys toys that promote spacial awareness and mathematics. Girls are given dolls and taught to care.

[@vicsummers9431]

I don’t understand his conclusion around 1:29:00. If a small gender difference in verbal ability becomes more pronounced in more egalitarian societies, isn’t that an indication of a genetic influence being allowed to express itself?

[@artolapvetelainen3703]

I was thinking exactly the same!

[@saldasinkope3002]

Does anyone have notes from these lectures?

[@andreybakalenko2378]

Here is the reading list docs.google.com/document/d/1LW9CCHIlOGfZyIpowCvGD-lIfMFm7QkIuwqpKuSemCc/edit?hl=en_US

[@zinaidaroshu7970]

www.robertsapolskyrocks.com/behavioral-genetics-ii.html Hover the mouse over "Hum-Bio" section and choose the lecture from a pop-up list.

[@SA-sp8hl]

@@zinaidaroshu7970 Thank you. Much appreciated..

[@zinaidaroshu7970]

@@SA-sp8hl You are welcome! Also, Sapolsky's book "Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst" represents the same material in an equally ingenious manner.

[@SA-sp8hl]

@@zinaidaroshu7970 Sure thing. Cheers.. I've been researching on neuroscience behind human behaviour, stress response etc and I came across his lectures and I've been hooked ever since.

[@ferrellms]

Having read about this stuff off and on after having discovered Steven Jay Gould essays 40 years ago - this is perfect,

[@mehdiait-bachir557]

This guy's puns are fresh and make you assimilate things more clearly, am pretty sure it's a requirement for being a Stanford teacher. I mean, 1:05:31 "The Swiss cheese index of the brain" you gotta have an advanced degree to come up with that kind of stuff.

[@adithyan_ai]

Summary : 1. Selective dog breeding shows rapid physical changes In a Russian study, selective breeding of dogs has led to major physical changes resembling puppies in merely 30 generations. This highlights how the interplay between genetics and environment can influence traits and drive evolution quickly. 2. Genetic analysis techniques and challenges Genetic analysis involves observing traits to find genetic differences and understanding variations in phenotype and behavior. Techniques such as RFLP's, microarrays, and QTLs are employed, but challenges include potential incorrect results and ethical dilemmas of testing for incurable diseases. 3. Genes affecting behavior and emotions Genes such as dopamine, vasopressin, and BDNF affect risk-taking behavior, social affiliation, anxiety, and fear. Studying genetic variations in these genes sheds light on the connection between genetics and behavior and how mutations can be linked to conditions like autism. 4. Role of chance in genetics and behavior Chance plays a significant role in gene-environment interactions and genetic diversity. This includes mitochondrial DNA sequences, cell division variability, and unpredictable gene interactions during neural stem cell division. Behavior genetics aims to quantify traits using various techniques to better understand this role of chance. 5. Understanding heritability and variability in traits Heritability is a measure of how much genes contribute to variability in traits. It's determined by examining genetic markers and copy length variants, and ranges from 0% to 100%. Often, environmental factors play a larger role in variability than genetic differences. 6. Gene-environment interaction in heritability Environment is crucial when analyzing the impact of gene versions on factors like plant IQ. The environment-gene relationship affects the trait, and it's impossible to fully understand a gene's function without considering its interaction with the environment, which can lead to lower heritability. 7. Genes and environment in determining human behavior Genetic variance in depression is highly dependent on an individual's childhood exposure to glucocorticoids. Heritability studies measure trait variability, not averages, and are influenced by the removal of environmental variability. The gene-environment relationship in human behavior is inseparable, making it a crucial breakthrough in biological psychiatry. 8. Gender differences in math and verbal performance across countries Gender differences in math performance are affected by societal factors, not inherent sex differences. Greater gender inequality leads to larger math score differences, while more gender-equal societies have smaller or non-existent differences, with females even excelling in verbal performance. 9. Nature and nurture interplay in genes and behavior The presence of a gene for a specific trait might not necessarily have a direct effect, but could result from indirect genetic effects. Human genes code for ways to have freedom from the effects of genetics, showing the importance of environment in shaping behavior. For summarized notes of all the lectures, check here : www.wisdominanutshell.academy/tag/human-behavioral-biology-robert-sapolsky/

[@nicolareddwooddforest4481]

This is not that far out into the future any more. I am hopeful. People will even want to have this done to themselves, because being loving feels sooo much better.

[@SunshineInWoods]

The last ten minutes are great!

[@maxheadrom3088]

Where can I find the extended notes for these classes? Thanks!

[@semihsenol1639]

I think this guy is a freakin' hero the way he talks & explains and also he's very funny.🤣

[@julianreischl]

Why do the camera people keep filiming Prof. Robert Sapolsky and don't show a single insert of the board, especially when he points to important graphics? See 1:05:25 for example.

[@anthonyhewitt9397]

Love how theres somone clicking in their pen like a crazy person the entire video. Cant even fall asleep to the video.

[@mariadelmarcalderon6736]

love his sense of humor and focus mind

[@anonymouslycorrect1]

🤔💓😜 thank you! Love love learning about the function of the amygdala. I'm giving a biology presentation about fear of climant change and aspects of human behavior.

[@amonal42]

Heritability depicting with dots at 41:55 is wrong and confusing. It does something with variance but in different way.

[@charlesbrightman4237]

Judge to defendant: 'Why did you do what you did?' Defendant: " 'I' didn't do anything, it was my genes and environment that is to blame. 'I' am innocent. "

[@kalai_doscope]

Every human should watch this

[@daniellebryan3496]

I think one of the things that blew my mind the most.... "Data are plural." 0.o

[@hispanofilos]

for most of us, it's a collective noun, like water or rice.

[@patrickrocha4283]

I think this was his best lecture

[@kuhataparunks]

57:28 tripped me out what the hell I was saying 100% in my head before he explained it

[@Sebentheyargimachine]

How can we access the notes being talked about in the lecture?

[@oasisneko1]

It would have been good to show the white board once in a while.

[@kristinaplays2924]

I knew he was gonna say scandinavia when he was talking about math. Swede here, math is easy :)

[@oussama8717]

Yeah that's right, but he didn't mention that the more the egalitarian the country is the more the gender gap in the science fields are rather increased than decreased. www.thejournal.ie/gender-equality-countries-stem-girls-3848156-Feb2018/

[@jameseames4754]

It is not a surprising he didn't mention that, because he indicated the opposite. The gender gap in careers is fact and I'm sure there is an associated level of math skill that accompanies that. He says gender gap in math skill in Scandinavia is zero. I really doubt it. How can there be a gender gap in STEM careers without a simultaneous gender gap in math skill. For that to hold, for every man in math intensive profession, there would have to a woman who has equal skill in math, but a career in some other field. All the extra male rocket scientists are balanced out by women who learned rocket science math as a hobby. That would be truly amazing.

[@PCSExponent]

@@jameseames4754 That is PRECISELY the situation!!! and I have no idea why you'd find that amazing. The best math students at my university were girls who eventually entered med school (and two biochemists, as well). I was somewhere lower down the pecking order, at least in physics courses, but chose to go the physical chem route.

[@jameseames4754]

Your fabricated anecdotal evidence combined with a sophisticated use of punctuation makes a persuasive case.

[@PCSExponent]

@@jameseames4754 Ah, but you're ignoring both the anecdotal evidence and the documented, controlled evidence referred to by Sapolsky. You are obviously the one with an agenda (as a guy who identifies with exactly zero feminist causes-well maybe I accept that women's contributions to science and art have been downplayed or out-right ignored, but otherwise I view current day feminists as a bunch of science-denying cows, with the obligatory simps in tow-I'm not sure what agenda you'd think I could be pushing). As such, I'm not surprised you'd accuse me of fabrication, as you probably know no other modus operandi. As for my "sophisticated use of punctuation", you're welcome to take each punctuation mark you don't like and stick it up your rectum.

[@dfghj241]

good day to be a biology student! thanks stanford!

[@ellygreening5616]

i wish the camera person would pan just a little to the right so i could see what hes pointing at on the whiteboard

[@yannbiguidel9787]

great course, I would prefer it even more if the camera was fixed in a large view so we could see the stimuli he shows.

[@TheAIEpiphany]

interesting - according to Jordan Peterson Scandinavian countries didn't end up having smaller gender differences in STEM fields (as a consequence of much greater gender equality in their societies) but quite the opposite. I'd love to see some references as these are quite opposite results/conclusions. Anyone?

[@QuitNasha]

Brownian motion is the random movement of particles suspended in a liquid or gas. It can be observed by looking at dust or pollen particles in the air when light shines through a window

[@charlesbrightman4237]

The info right before the break about midway through: Lesson: 'Be a real sincere honest truth seeker with critical thinking type skills.'

[@hisxmark]

“Do not believe in anything simply because you have heard it. Do not believe in anything simply because it is spoken and rumored by many. Do not believe anything because it s found written in your religious books. Do not believe in anything merely on the authority of your teachers and elders. Do not believe in traditions because they have been handed down for many generations. But after observation and analysis, when you find that anything agrees with reason and is conducive to the good and benefit of one and all, then accept and live up to it.” --- Buddha Siddhartha Gautama Shakyamuni

[@charlesbrightman4237]

@@hisxmark Do my gravity test for my Theory Of Everything idea and potentially have the literal TOE of this entire universe: (Copy and pastes from my files): Revised TOE: 3/25/2017a. My Current TOE: THE SETUP: 1. Modern science currently recognizes four forces of nature: The strong nuclear force, the weak nuclear force, gravity, and electromagnetism. 2. In school we are taught that with magnetism, opposite polarities attract and like polarities repel. But inside the arc of a large horseshoe magnet it's the other way around, like polarities attract and opposite polarities repel. (I have proved this to myself with magnets and anybody with a large horseshoe magnet and two smaller bar magnets can easily prove this to yourself too. It occurs at the outer end of the inner arc of the horseshoe magnet.). 3. Charged particles have an associated magnetic field with them. 4. Protons and electrons are charged particles and have their associated magnetic fields with them. 5. Photons also have both an electric and a magnetic component to them. FOUR FORCES OF NATURE DOWN INTO TWO: 6. When an electron is in close proximity to the nucleus, it would basically generate a 360 degree spherical magnetic field. 7. Like charged protons would stick together inside of this magnetic field, while simultaneously repelling opposite charged electrons inside this magnetic field, while simultaneously attracting the opposite charged electrons across the inner portion of the electron's moving magnetic field. 8. There are probably no such thing as "gluons" in actual reality. 9. The strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force are probably derivatives of the electro-magnetic field interactions between electrons and protons. 10. The nucleus is probably an electro-magnetic field boundary. 11. Quarks also supposedly have a charge to them and then would also most likely have electro-magnetic fields associated with them, possibly a different arrangement for each of the six different type of quarks. 12. The interactions between the quarks EM forces are how and why protons and neutrons formulate as well as how and why protons and neutrons stay inside of the nucleus and do not just pass through as neutrinos do. THE GEM FORCE INTERACTIONS AND QUANTA: 13. Personally, I currently believe that the directional force in photons is "gravity". It's the force that makes the sine wave of EM energy go from a wide (maximum extension) to a point (minimum extension) of a moving photon and acts 90 degrees to the EM forces which act 90 degrees to each other. When the EM gets to maximum extension, "gravity" flips and EM goes to minimum, then "gravity" flips and goes back to maximum, etc, etc. A stationary photon would pulse from it's maximum extension to a point possibly even too small to detect, then back to maximum, etc, etc. 14. I also believe that a pulsating, swirling singularity (which is basically a pulsating, swirling 'gem' photon) is the energy unit in this universe. 15. When these pulsating, swirling energy units interact with other energy units, they tangle together and can interlock at times. Various shapes (strings, spheres, whatever) might be formed, which then create sub-atomic material, atoms, molecules, and everything in existence in this universe. 16. When the energy units unite and interlock together they would tend to stabilize and vibrate. 17. I believe there is probably a Photonic Theory Of The Atomic Structure. 18. Everything is basically "light" (photons) in a universe entirely filled with "light" (photons). THE MAGNETIC FORCE SPECIFICALLY: 19. When the electron with it's associated magnetic field goes around the proton with it's associated magnetic field, internal and external energy oscillations are set up. 20. When more than one atom is involved, and these energy frequencies align, they add together, specifically the magnetic field frequency. 21. I currently believe that this is where a line of flux originates from, aligned magnetic field frequencies. NOTES: 22. The Earth can be looked at as being a massive singular interacting photon with it's magnetic field, electrical surface field, and gravity, all three photonic forces all being 90 degrees from each other. 23. The flat spiral galaxy can be looked at as being a massive singular interacting photon with it's magnetic fields on each side of the plane of matter, the electrical field along the plane of matter, and gravity being directed towards the galactic center's black hole where the gravitational forces would meet, all three photonic forces all being 90 degrees from each other. 24. As below in the singularity, as above in the galaxy and probably universe as well. 25. I believe there are only two forces of nature, Gravity and EM, (GEM). Due to the stability of the GEM with the energy unit, this is also why the forces of nature haven't evolved by now. Of which with the current theory of understanding, how come the forces of nature haven't evolved by now since the original conditions acting upon the singularity aren't acting upon them like they originally were, billions of years have supposedly elapsed, in a universe that continues to expand and cool, with energy that could not be created nor destroyed would be getting less and less dense? My theory would seem to make more sense if in fact it is really true. I really wonder if it is in fact really true. 26. And the universe would be expanding due to these pulsating and interacting energy units and would also allow galaxies to collide, of which, how could galaxies ever collide if they are all speeding away from each other like is currently taught? DISCLAIMER: 27. As I as well as all of humanity truly do not know what we do not know, the above certainly could be wrong. It would have to be proved or disproved to know for more certainty.

[@charlesbrightman4237]

@@hisxmark Here is the test for the 'gravity' portion of my TOE idea. I do not have the necessary resources to do the test but maybe you or someone else reading this does, will do the test, then tell the world what is found out either way. a. Imagine a 12 hour clock. b. Put a magnetic field across from the 3 to 9 o'clock positions. c. Put an electric field across from the 6 to 12 o'clock positions. (The magnetic field and electric field would be 90 degrees to each other and should be polarized so as to complement each other.) d. Shoot a high powered laser through the center of the clock at 90 degrees to the em fields. e. Do this with the em fields on and off. (The em fields could be varied in size, strength, density and depth. The intent would be to energy frequency match the laser and em fields for optimal results.) f. Look for any gravitational / anti-gravitational effects. (Including the utilization of ferro cells so as to be able to actually see the energy field movements.) (And note: if done right, it's possible a mini gravitational black hole might form. Be ready for it. In addition, it's possible a neutrino might be formed before the black hole stage, the neutrino being a substance with a very high gravitational modality with very low 'em' modalities.) (An alternative to the above would be to shoot 3 high powered lasers, or a single high powered laser split into 3 beams, each adjustable to achieve the above set up, all focused upon a single point in space.) 'If' effects are noted, 'then' further research could be done. 'If' effects are not noted, 'then' my latest TOE idea is wrong. But still, we would know what 'gravity' was not, which is still something in the scientific world. Science still wins either way and moves forward.

[@charlesbrightman4237]

@@hisxmark And if numbers themselves do not exist in this universe by this or some similar way for math to do what math does in this universe, then how exactly would numbers exist in this universe for math to do what math does in this universe? (Copy and paste from my files): 'IF' my latest TOE idea is really true, (and I fully acknowledge the 'if' at this time), that the pulsating, swirling 'gem' photon is the energy unit of this universe that makes up everything in existence in this universe, and what is called 'gravity' is a part of what is currently recognized as the 'em' photon, then the oscillation of these 3 interacting modalities of the energy unit would be as follows: Gravity: Maximum in one direction, Neutral, Maximum in the other direction; Electrical: Maximum in one direction, Neutral, Maximum in the other direction; Magnetic: Maximum in one direction, Neutral, Maximum in the other direction. Then: 1 singular energy unit, with 3 different modalities, with 6 maximum most reactive positions, with 9 total basic reactive positions (neutrals included). Hence 1, 3, 6, 9 being very prominent numbers in this universe and why mathematics even works in this universe. (And possibly '0', zero, as possibly neutrals are against other neutrals, even if only briefly, for no flow of energy, hence the number system that we currently have).

[@charlesbrightman4237]

@@hisxmark And oh, the universe ALWAYS existed in some form and NEVER had a beginning: Consider the following, utilizing modern science and logic and reason: a. Modern science claims that energy cannot be created nor destroyed, it's one of the foundations of physics. Hence, energy is either truly eternally existent, or modern science is wrong. b. An 'absolute somethingness' cannot come from 'absolute nothingness', 'absolute nothingness' just being a concept from a conscious entity in 'absolute somethingness'. Hence, an 'absolute somethingness' truly eternally existed throughout all of eternity past, exists today, and will most probably exist throughout all of future eternity. That eternally existent 'absolute somethingness' most probably being energy itself. c. The universe ALWAYS existed in some form and will most probably ALWAYS exist in some form, with no beginning and possibly no end. Alpha and Omega, beginning and end, have been replaced by actual reality. d. And for me, 'space' is energy itself. Wherever space is, energy is. Wherever energy is, space is. They are one and the same thing. And 'time' is the flow of energy. Hence 'spacetime' being 'energy and it's flow'. 'Spacetime' had no beginning and will possibly have no end.

[@sjoerd1239]

I don't think Brownian motion is actually "completely random". Anyway, I think it is enough to know that the stuff in a cell is always in motion within the cell, and when the cell splits the stuff other than the DNA goes to different cells depending on where they are in the parent cell at the time. What goes where is statistically reliable.