Why the Pyramid Building Tradition Ended: The Mastaba of Shepseskaf

[@AncientArchitects]

Thank you for watching and for being here! If you want to support the channel, you can become a KZbin Member at kzbin.info/door/scI4NOggNSN-Si5QgErNCwjoin or I’m on Patreon at www.patreon.com/ancientarchitects

[@dreddykrugernew]

Aww i miss the intro

[@dreddykrugernew]

Ah it comes in lol

[@rayn8740]

I don't recall hearing about Shepseskaf or his legacy before seeing this video. Thanks for bringing him back into the spotlight.

[@massimosquecco8956]

Same here! I m astonished by the complexity of this building, but nobody has given the deserved attention before this interesting video.

[@Lxve53]

Keith! Its always him! An absolute treasure to this community, thanks so much for always giving him credit where its due.

[@AncientArchitects]

And a lovely bloke too. 10 days in Egypt with him in September - great bloke!

[@johnathanadams6378]

I’ve been waiting for this one, Matt. Thank you for your hard work!

[@AncientArchitects]

Thanks

[@afterthought3341]

​@@AncientArchitectswish we had never seen your face

[@pernillerosa5943]

​@@afterthought3341I think he is a fine man😊 he is real and intelligent.. 🇩🇰

[@unrealuknow864]

​@AncientArchitects I agree. Such a well done presentation. You have come a long ways over the years. As a side note, did you you notice the large crack in the lintel at 21:26? Or is that the mortar that cracked apart? Hard to tell

[@barrywalser2384]

This is fascinating. Thanks for the detailed tour Matt!

[@paulroberts7429]

Age, health and popularity all played apart in Pharaohs legacy, I always thought that Shepseskaf's reign was shared because of health issues which would explain his short reign to a point he needed a co-ruler, Great exploration Matt.

[@mariocanedo196]

I really found useful the sketches showing with arrows the direction at which the photographs were taken. Thank you.

[@Rjjgt888]

Your work is such high quality! Thank you for your dedication!

[@MPLS_Andy]

Those notes relating to the intended floor level are super interesting. I wonder if similar builders notes have been found elsewhere. If they have, maybe a good topic for a video (hint hint). They really humanize the whole building process. Anyway. Great video as always!! Keep up the good work.

[@free_gold4467]

Yes that's fascinating, it 'humanizes' it like you say, brings the people to life, makes them real.

[@nos9784]

Do you know about the "diary of merer", (papyrus jarf a and b), a papyrus documenting the transportation of pyramid stones? I was amazed when I learned about that.

[@free_gold4467]

I'll have to look for that!@@nos9784

[@lancebon2931]

At 26:29 there are scars on some of the blocks that pass from one block to the adjacent block and in some instances, several of the adjoining blocks, the most obvious is the long scar at the center of the image. There seem to be matching scares of that long one in the center of the image in the bottom right of the image. It shows that adjacent blocks were cut out in the quarry and positioned side by side exactly like in their natural position before cutting. If these are erosion marks or patterns, they wouldn't have continuity between blocks if they were just randomly placed stones even from the same quarry. the composition matrix of natural stone is not perfectly uniform. It makes me wonder were these blocks just placed randomly, or were there circumstances in the cuts that made it mandatory to place each block exactly side by side as the stone was naturally formed. That would mean that as blocks were cut and before sending them to the job sight they would have had to have a record for each block sent with the block to specify the position each was to be placed. Moving the blocks from the quarry to the job sight would normally jumble the materials up, blocks of stone cut to exact dimensions to each other, would just be blocks of stone, so who would care how they were placed as long as they maintained continuity of construction. Forgive me for this long comment. Anomalies always caught my attention even as a child of 4 or 5 years old.

[@Marc83Aus]

Wind erosion can create linear scars like this, once a pit forms it creates eddy currants that direct further erosion in various directions. However, your possibly right about continuity of the stones, since they were quarried nearby it is very possible that stones from the same layer were laid next to each other, if the layer was uniform over a long distance and stacked for shipment immediately it is very likely to be sitting next to stones removed from nearby areas.

[@jonathangriffiths2499]

Ensures the material has the same qualities and performance characteristics as well

[@LukeGrimm]

I like the no intro. Feels like you have a lot to say and you get right to it. Bravo!

[@UnitSe7en]

A cursory examination of the plan at 15 minutes shows that the large slabs inside the breach *could not possibly* be the interior walls of the subterranean rooms.

[@free_gold4467]

True, the rooms are subterranean, not at the height of those slabs.

[@bryede]

My thought towards the end was that perhaps the mastaba was supposed to be something larger and more elaborate when the granite was being placed in the ground, and then scaled back to a more efficient structure.

[@JMM33RanMA]

Very interesting. I note that the diagrams have been improved as well. Keep up the excellent work Matt!

[@evbbjones7]

BOOM Matt! 31 minutes? What a way to start my Saturday! You know what's really fascinating about this Mastaba? It's stepped, and it doesn't really seem like it needs to be. It's not that tall. I would be curious to find out if Mastaba's were usually shorter than this, or if stepped construction was typical for mastabas in general, because it doesn't seem to my recollection that is the case. I bring this point up to posit, what if it wasn't intended to be a Mastaba at all? What if Shepseskaf was attempting to build a Pyramid with what would have been an incredibly steep angle and not only ran into engineering challenges, but financing challenges(First intermediate period). This is all speculation mind you, but I think it might be worth some light investigation at a bare minimum. Never know where you'll find content! Cheers Matt, thanks for all the great work. Edit: I wrote the above at about 15 minutes in. And further watching the video, I'm going to push it a little harder. This thing was suppose to be a pyramid! Mastaba's aren't stepped. Mastabas ARE the steps. Mastabas don't have horizontal burial chamber entrances from the southern side, they have them vertical from the TOP. The only thing this thing needs to make it a traditional Egyptian pyramid of 4th dynasty lineage is a peak.

[@AncientArchitects]

Yeah, it’s not necessarily a mastaba. It’s more mastaba than pyramid on the outside, but more pyramid than mastaba on the inside.

[@evbbjones7]

@@AncientArchitects Exactly! Very funky little building. Almost like they made engineering developments when making Pyramids that were innovations and improvements on Mastaba's. Then when tasked with the project of doing a Mastaba again, they built it like they would have a Pyramid. Side note, can you imagine how glorious this thing must have been at its peak? Covered in vibrant colors and imagery, probably sparkling white in the sun, at height on elevation. These smaller works often get overlooked, but you can guarantee they were every bit as decorated as their larger counterparts. One thing I wanted to mention Matt, is you went on to talk about how Userkaf resumes the pyramid construction and incorporates the interior innovations of Shepseskef were carried over to it in the 5th dynasty. But what I find fascination about this, is the interlude between the 4th and 5th dynasty is hundreds of years during the First intermediate period. I find this period incredibly interesting. Where are all the rulers tombs? Somebody was in charge of something, and important people in charge got buried in style. I think this highlights that even though Egypt is arguably the most dug up and investigated archeological site in the entire world, it must absolutely pale in comparison to what's still under the sand.. if the Egyptian Antiquities board would only get out of the way. ;)

[@philbarker7477]

All the structures were built stepped.This one is no exception.Even Herodotus was told this and all the evidence supports this. This Mastaba/pyramid reminds me of the stepped pyramid - particularly if time is an issue. First you build a rectangular Mastaba ( one or two layers).If you find you have more time you can revert to a square base and add more steps. This guy didn’t. PS I think your ‘borrowed’ granite idea is spot on. Good vid’@@AncientArchitects

[@bweaverla]

Thank you for this presentation about a little-known pharaoh and for the hypothesis about the large amount of granite inside Shepseskaf's tomb. It seems to fit well with what we know about Menkaure's pyramid.

[@StephiSensei26]

Never disappointed with your material Matt. Thanks so much.

[@AncientWonderX]

The shift from pyramids to a mastaba with Shepseskaf suggests a notable turn in Egypt's 4th Dynasty history. This decision may reveal much about the period's societal and political landscape.

[@Eyes_Open]

This sooo much better than clearing snow at my house. Thanks!!!

[@AncientArchitects]

Oh god, good luck - sounds like you deserve the break!

[@proto57]

This excellent! The three translated ancient markings, and line, for the height of the floor gives us such a connection to the mindset of the builders. And I had NO idea that portcullis blocks were this intact ANYWHERE. Interesting they were possibly raised by tomb robbers here, when these blocks have been destroyed in other structures. It makes one wonder what sort of levers they had to do such a thing. One question: What do you suppose the tapered tube is to the behind and left of the sarcophagus fragment at about 20:05 ? Is that a pottery fragment? EDIT TO ADD: Now I see better pictures of these objects at 22:00 I suppose they are modern glass bottles? Or what?

[@MarkGeraghty]

As always, very interesting and very well researched and presented. Thank you Matt.

[@guyrixon5406]

I suspect most of the monuments were built simply to show off. As JFK later said, "we do these things not because they are easy, but because they are hard". In the 3rd dynasty they built km of underground tunnels in the burial site. Then that became well established and they stopped doing it. In the 4th dynasty, they built pyramids with complex interiors, which is really hard at low tech. Then that became established and they only did simple internal structure after that. Perhaps a point was reached where pyramids themselves seemed too easy?

[@pageribe2399]

The workmaship of the Shepseskaf head is gorgeous.

[@Kamikaze_4]

Love your vids!

[@AncientArchitects]

Thank you 🙏

[@daviddonnelly2700]

SUPERB VIDEO. FASCINATING. THANK YOU

[@louyunglam9486]

Very interesting work related to this unknown monument located in a forbidden area. Thank you Matt

[@18Macallan]

Thank you sir! 👍

[@phoneguy4637]

I always thought Shepseskaf did it because the royal house of egypt was broke?

[@AncientArchitects]

One possible explanation

[@phoneguy4637]

@@AncientArchitects I'm convinced I read about this theory frequently. the building of the pyramids sure devoured most of the kingdom's economic resources.

[@phoneguy4637]

​@@AncientArchitectsit also makes total sense when comparing the pyramids of 5th to 7th dynasty with those of the 4th dynasty. the pyramids from dynasty 5 to 7 are comparatively sloppy built and small. they are limestone packages filled with rubble.

[@Fuzzmo147]

@@phoneguy4637& eco system

[@4cats1porcupine]

Fascinating as always. Watched with my dad, he is a fan now also. Thank you!

[@thomasmuir5653]

After hearing about the floor markings. Yep the trades don’t change.

[@StephiSensei26]

Very Cool!

[@loke6664]

It is an interesting theory but I do see another possibility: Politics. Pyramids were really not that old by the end of the 4th dynasty and I could see a leader trying to be more like an earlier Pharaoh from another dynasty, be that Narmer or someone else. To "Make Egypt great again" basically. If you are a bit impopular when you take the throne you either start a war or try to be connected with an old hero ruler, that is basically dictatorship 101. So creating something that looks similar to the older dynasties but more impressive isn't actually that far fetched, and he placed it so you can see it together with the founder of his own dynasty which certainly is a political statement. I think he knew that he couldn't make something as huge as his predecessors, either because he knew he didn't have as much time or enough money. He certainly did focus his quality on the inside, which I think was a religious statement since no one really was supposed to enter it so I don't see any reason for doing it besides impressing the Gods. The shape is a very different matter, it is large and advanced enough to be impressive but not on the level of the earlier kings from his dynasty. The size in itself could have been an economical statement as well, he choose to impress the Gods with the lovely interior and that gave him far less money for size. He could have still built a pyramid but didn't and there is where I think the politics comes in to it.The placement connects him to his dynasties founder and the third dynasty as well, the form to the third (or possibly 1st and 2nd) dynasty too. We have seen a lor of rulers trying to connect with the past, in Mesopotamia, rulers wanted to be connected to Sargon the Great. In classical times (and in some times later) with Alexander. We seen English kings trying to be connected with Arthur and we even see a certain North Korean leader trying to be connected to his grandfather. It is a common way to get status from the people to connect yourself to a famous beloved leader and I actually think that is the likeliest reason for a ruler to backtrack. The 2 suggested reasons doesn't make as much sense. Shepseskaf doesn't seem like a heretic since he spent so much work on the insides and that later Pharaoh's copied him. Just economic/time, doesn't make sense either, some pyramids are a lot smaller and he still could have made a large enough pyramid in the time and with the money he spent on this. If it isn't resources or religion, then it is usually politics.

[@itsnot_stupid_ifitworks]

I agree i could be just a throw back to an older style preference. Maybe popular at the time. Like the Greek/ Roman influence on the US capitol etc. I also think the smaller projects during this time could be money etc but also the result of using up a lot of the readily available wood for mortar and construction uses.

[@loke6664]

@@itsnot_stupid_ifitworks It is more like if Charles built a Victorian style mansion today, the mustabas was not really that long out of date. Djoser built the first pyramid who was kinda a hybrid between a mustaba and a pyramid and that was about 130 years earlier (maybe a little less or more, the dates back then can be a bit unreliable and it is possible we missed a Pharaoh or Queen that got crossed out of history for some reason, it have happened with a few others). Before that, mustabas were the standard funeral buildings. The size certainly have something to do with time and resources, but also the expensive Aswan granite that probably was by far the most expensive part of the building. 130 years are not really that long time and I think the building is a statement, just like the pyramids are a statement. Khufu wanted people to know he was the greatest Pharaoh who ever lived so he built a monument making that clear to anyone even to this day. This was a statement that our Pharaoh here had the blood of the third dynasty and Narmer in him (yeah, the 5 first dynasties were related and seems to have been split up by a new kingdom scribe to make it easier to distinct the periods, not because they really were different dynasties). He had the power and wisdom of the people who came before him, so you better do what he say. And yeah, if he had the time and resources he probably would have tried to beat Khufu instead but you need to be young, rich, healthy and popular to make something like that.

[@itsnot_stupid_ifitworks]

@loke6664 yes of course, good analogy.

[@loke6664]

@@itsnot_stupid_ifitworks The Roman influence in the Capitolium is more like the pyramids in Nubia and of the 25th dynasty. They were made almost 2000 years later influenced by a past culturally important time, so it works great as an analogy, but not in this specific case. ;)

[@OmarFawcett]

Isida project! 😉 Good work Matt! 🟪

[@lynnmitzy1643]

Thank you Matt ❤👍🏼

[@AncientArchitects]

Thanks Lynn

[@CBH250]

Agree on all, good summary. One small point though, I believe the heaviest blocks in Giza is 80t. All the huge ones are in other areas.

[@prinzeugen666]

Hello everybody

[@AncientArchitects]

Hello

[@Falkenlp3]

Whaddup

[@SimonEkendahl]

And welcome to Ancient Architects

[@Cold_Cactus]

Ahoy

[@ryann6067]

Excellent video and production! Another fascinating video!

[@brianmsahin]

Excellent video . Some great information. Maybe we should not be too harsh about the blocked entrance. The structure could possibly be unsafe in some areas and there is possibly worry about accidental damage by tourists from humidity etc. As for the location, when I see the drawing of random lines with absolutely no reference, it borders on the Ancient Aliens fantasy. There are far better more practical and less imaginary theories. The psuedo archeologists love to draw imaginary lines.

[@pepperspray7386]

giants kept stepping on them, and it hurts worst than lego.

[@Akimos]

Lovely, very nice new news to me. TY for your research. (Also, I kinda like the changes you made for the beginnings of the videos. )

[@BlackTropics]

Excellent and informative video. I'd really like to visit this site now. Thank you.

[@AndyKnudsen]

Another thought provoking video, keep up the great work!

[@maizie9454]

very much appreciate your common sense to ancient structures.

[@harriehausenman8623]

oh yeah, here we go! 🥳

[@michaelbutcher9343]

Hello Matt

[@AncientArchitects]

Hello

[@georgeharteman4083]

Thanks for this great piece of work. Revealing

[@gheffz]

Perhaps structure and location change was due to less resources and perhaps Shepseskaf was ill and they made it with a little more urgency? And it even appears that it wasn't completely finished and somewhat undressed? Of course, just a guess but there's lots of guesswork around the Pyramids. Ha, you made the same possible conclusion, I typed that before I got to your theory.

[@rogerdudra178]

Greetings from the BIG SKY.

[@TheDavidMancini]

Maybe he didn't break tradition, but just didn't finish. This could be the inner structure

[@TheDejael]

DjedefRa built his pyramid at Abu-Rawash. Shepseskaf was the last pharaoh of the 4th Dynasty, son of MenkauRa.

[@brett-lothian]

The weathering on the stones is interesting, reminds me of the sphinx enclosure.

[@magnusdunning6113]

Starting off the new year right! Thanks again!

[@tinkerstrade3553]

I'm going with the scavenging idea. Human nature being what it is, and within the time restraints imposed by bad health, this is the most logical approach. A truncated pyramid for a short lived king. Good video, thanks.

[@johndutchman]

Great episode ! Thank you

[@mrains100]

Thank you.

[@sidcymraeg]

Great Matt. One to think about. Thanks .

[@timcarbone007]

Another great video. Love your channel

[@pierrot8358]

Dont know anything but as more computer imagery technics advances, as more precise, detailed and realistic archeological founds are. What if fake archeological artefacts followed the sames technological advances, but maybe for sure not, does someone have any clue? Thanks for the content and hope your loved ones are good

[@dougm2174]

Great video, thank you.

[@Senmuth]

Thanks for the movie! How many of my photos were used))

[@ChrisSelling]

What year is the "old kingdom"?

[@markallen381]

Maybe pyramid workers objected to working the upper parts of the pyramid. It may have been certain death to work the upper parts of the pyramid. The decision to change the type of structure was based on safety

[@regentmad1037]

you know i never get an alert when a new video posts

[@casualviewing1096]

Another great video 👍

[@scottzema3103]

The construction of the mastaba carries the hallmarks of the step core construction of the Giza pyramids, which seems to consist of five courses of large limestone blocks for each step (described below). These are not courses like those on Djoser's pyramid at Saqqara, which consist of much smaller blocks. This mastaba could not have been built based on its construction before the construction of the red pyramid or the three large Giza pyramids because it shows the large masonry steps built with level tops to support the cladding notably missing say from the earlier pyramid at Meidum, also apparent on other mastabas on the plateau. So this mastaba and the Queen's pyramids show a similar construction in that respect, which may be translated into the construction of the Great Pyramid itself. The base layered step form of the mastaba occur in two steps (plus a cap ) of five courses; interestingly as mentioned the same structure was used in the queen's pyramids at Giza; the same base step formation each with five courses and the overall forms clad with facing since lost. In fact the Pyramid of Khufu topped out at 280 royal cubits originally (240 royal cubits minus the cap) which translates into six structural steps each at 40 cubits high or about seventy feet. Each block used on these courses was about 14' feet high on this core section of the pyramid or eight royal cubits. A very handy dimension. by the way! Why is this important? Because that 70 feet indicates the elevation of the abandoned entry of Khufu's pyramid at about 70 feet and is therefore the same elevation as the floor of the Grand Gallery. Another convincing case for the direct connection between the abandoned entry and the Grand Gallery via a straight corridor. First elevations I have seen on the internet of the Great Pyramid, BTW! SZ BA MA

[@free_gold4467]

Great, love your stuff!

[@tamasvago87]

Did they use more granite in this mastaba than in the great pyramid? :O

[@elprincipefrancescoli7965]

Only a time machine will tell the real truth. For now we just have theories 🤔

[@Kariakas]

Amazing, detailed content.

[@Luciddreamer007]

🦋 Great Video 🦋

[@adriantuesta1012]

I think It ended because they realize the anoumt of resources to built such large pyramids was not worth the return of investment and that was basically a waste of time and money and was not pratical in the long run.I mean you cant really do anything with them and 95 percent of its total voulme is solid rock.They later focused on building large temple complexes which were relgious but actually had usable space they did not have to use alot of interior columns to prevent the roof from failing part instead of arches vaults domes

[@TheTikiMan]

Cool

[@debra183again]

But what is it ?

[@RobertMStahl]

Competition between generations? Sibling rivalry?

[@ChrisSelling]

What year is the "dynastic period"?

[@me_fault]

after 3100BC 'Predynastic Egypt span the period from the earliest human settlement to the beginning of the Early Dynastic Period around 3100 BC, starting with the first Pharaoh, Narmer for some Egyptologists, Hor-Aha for others, with the name Menes also possibly used for one of these kings.'

[@ChrisSelling]

@@me_fault Thank you!

[@cal2127]

the overuse of granite feels like a fear of theives

[@user-gf7zf9sx7w]

very interesting video.

[@janetbate2900]

I like the opinion offered that this could be the unfinished internal structure of a pyramid . The burial chambers are vary similar to those in pyramids! Seems a vary fare analysis.

[@skynet5828]

I have a question regarding the mortuary temple of Khafre. The Digital Giza Project depicts it as being entirely covered in red granite, however I've read in multiple sources that its outer casing stones were made of white Tura limestone. Do you know anything about that?

[@t0mn8r35]

Very interesting.

[@charlesblithfield6182]

The 23 degree sloped narrow lined passageway into the mustaba is potentially suggestive of astronomical relationships if it faces due N or S (can’t recall).

[@TheBenchPressMan]

Very sad, if Egypt was a Western Country then we would know and order of magnitude more about these structures. But Egypt is so corrupt, it’s surprising these monuments are not still being robbed and pillaged!

[@chilledwalrus]

Let's hear it for Snifferoo!

[@simonstergaard]

this site is almost more mysterious than the pyramids...

[@effoffutube]

Amazing, imagine this in it's prime.

[@beaudilecaliste6545]

*its Imagine learning to spell basic English.

[@RuneRelic]

Any relation to the uprights and seat of the 'Recumbent Stone' circles ? Also Petries goes into some detail explaining the 1/4th height and 16/64th courses of Menkaures Pyramid in Granite. So to me they are literally shouting 1/4th height just as they shouted 1/5th height with the concavity of the great pyramid and its associated satellites.

[@farmerpete6274]

I have 2 thoughts on the question raised in this video: did Shepsekaf break tradition or do we have the wrong timeline, and looking at the mastaba, there is an excessive amount of weathering on the limestone blocks, not seen on similar blocks at Gizah. Something is not quite right with our understanding of these sites, in my opinion. But an excellant video nevertheless. Thanks

[@BrainsofFrank]

I feel that the people I. Charge of ancient Egypt are not doing things to advance the research as they feel "the worlds not ready" or nah we willnt look into that until I'm out of office and doing my own research and excavation into those areas just to bolster my own self interest and importance

[@piolox]

Please, add more Aliens in the nextt hypothesis 😊

[@cal2127]

maybe it was a case like with rameses sons, a long lived king suceeded by a son who was already old. everything about this feel rushed, from the exposed workmans markings to the choice of a mastaba.

[@martinross6416]

Fantastic work. Except Shepseskaf has a square pyramid like plan while early dynastic mastabas were rectangular. So Shepseskaf started as a pyramid. Related Question: How good is the alignment to N? Was that 4th Dyn pyramid-like too? Was not shaft like a mastaba but corridor like pyramid. Plenty of evidence it was begun as pyramid and was truncated for sone reason.

[@stevesalkas9128]

Aliens were tired they went home 😅

[@Kira-zy2ro]

Why the Pyramid Building Tradition Ended: Shepeskaf: "Hey guys im the new pharaoh!" People "omg another one! well, lets see how long this one lasts" Shepeskaf: "Allrite, gt to building my pyramid. make it nice and big" People: "Hey dude, we built you predecessors, the biggest, the tallest, the weirdest and most imposing pyramids, and a bunch of temples and a sphinx. One of your ancestors had at least _three_ of those triangular monstrosities. When is enough enough? We _can_ build one, but that would mean no glorious wars, no massive temples, no golden bedpan and only two sex slaves instead of 20" Shepeskaf: "Mastaba is fine"

[@cmdrpanpiper6415]

if variance for ground level varying over a longer time perhaps, could the ground level shift account for the tollerances in the pyramid angle variance be more precise but shifted over time? if the variance is very small, could suggest the structure was far more accurate but had shifted over time to how might measure it today, 61'-69' degrees if that can tie in together and self correct over a longer time period, with ground level shifting suggesting far older timescales maybe would suggest a better design and purpose. curious but thought i should post , before i forget and is lost.

[@user-yd2lg7oe7y]

Wouldn't it be easier to use vinger and fire on the portcullis blocks smashing them instead of lifting them, cart of been easy to lift them back up the priest would of made it more or less impossible with the tech of the day, I'm guessing

[@vonderloo3184]

Kinda looks like more upper level steps were scavenged for other modern elite buildings as they were known to do.

[@andrewconstruction86]

Can we just say that it is an unfinished pyramid? Didn't they simply start to build a pyramid and then due to the pharaoh's death they stopped at this stage?

[@v4skunk739]

How come all over the world as time went on the ancients became worse at building stuff as time passed?

[@AncientArchitects]

Different priorities and different political / economic factors

[@v4skunk739]

@@AncientArchitects Possibly. What about a world changing event that set people back, a loss of knowledge and technology?

[@richardearnshaw2719]

He broke from tradition because ... Why should the aliens have all the fun? And in any case they've probably still got copyright ❤😂

[@aripiispanen9349]

♪♫♥Very Interesting !