The Last Time the Globe Warmed

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Imagine an enormous, lush rainforest teeming with life...in the Arctic. Well, there was a time -- and not too long ago -- when the world warmed more than any human has ever seen. (So far)
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Special thanks to Nobumichi Tamura for allowing us to use his work:
spinops.blogspot.com/
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References:
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[@unvergebeneid]

What's important to keep in mind is that a quantitative difference in the rate of change can mean a qualitative difference in the effect of that change. E.g. if the change is slow enough for a species to adapt, it adapts. If it's faster than it can adapt, the species is gone. Which in turn might cause other species to go extinct, even if they could've otherwise adapted.

[@vampyricon7026]

+

[@CarFreeSegnitz]

Penny Lane Mostly agree... except for the circular adaptation reasoning. Adaptation is adaptation... extinction is extinction. Going extinct because another species went extinct is a case of not adapting to change. Saying a species would not have gone extinct if it weren't for the extinction of another species is purely hypothetical. The result is still the same... the co-dependent species is still extinct for lack of not adapting to the extinction of the other species.

[@unvergebeneid]

Lenard Segnitz, since species extinction is kind of a stochastic process, I still think my way of phrasing it makes sense. And of course it's hypothetical in retrospect or in a specific case but that's not what I'm talking about here.

[@unvergebeneid]

Joseph Burchanowski, sounds like a bold claim tbh. Much of what I'm implicitly referring to in my original comment is from this concept: www.nature.com/articles/nature08649 There are lots of concrete velocities of adaptation that can be determined for species so how does your statement fit into this?

[@unvergebeneid]

Well, migration capacity is one form of adaptation really. But the idea of climate change having a velocity is more generalizable than that. Amongst other things, it describes the ways in which the location of a species' habitat affects its ability to maintain its population. Add to that how fast it can adapt to changing temperatures or habitats (i.e. when it can't physically move fast enough or has nowhere to go) and how fragmented its habitat is (often also because of humans, preventing a species from physically moving) and you get a pretty good idea how non-linear the effect of different speeds of climate change can be, which was my original point.

[@JM-bl3ih]

If only there was an organism on earth that consumed excess CO2 and let put oxygen. We could put these things everywhere. 🤔🤔🤔

[@rihanix9646]

Who knows if eventually it will emerge, knowing evolution, maybe there is a bacteria somewhere that has to deal with this a lot and maybe it's descendants will develop this ability

[@josepeixoto3384]

trees and plants do it,not everyone gets it..

[@rotopope]

@@josepeixoto3384 Have you patented this "Tree" device yet? I hear Richard Branson is offering a prize...

[@Owlbearwolf2]

Deforestation. And actually, the 30% rise in CO2 ppm has affected plants. They're generally growing faster, but less nutrient dense, for the same reason as if you ate more sugar and less protein.

[@gaenorharris-obrien9934]

LOL

[@oldie4210]

I have a friend who was stationed in the high artic in the early 60's with the military. He recalled petrified tree stumps with roots 3 to 4 feet around, under neath a glacier.

[@thetechnicanwithaheart1682]

Yes actually I want to mention to you and the entire Community here my study on at the anthroprogenic climate change including paleo climatology. The national deep Core Ocean lab which is a research Lab at 4. Of a few years was on a large Expedition. The expedition was to drill deep core samples and store those samples on the ship. The Deep core samples would reach depths of the rock-based ocean. Thousands of samples we're drilled and brought onto land in the United States for storage and examination. They recorded carbon levels at the radiocarbon dating point of 55 million years ago that a mass extinction had occurred on Earth. The source of the mass extinction with carbon emissions or carbon-13 isotope that is typically released during a volcanic eruption. They started to measure the period in time how far back these carbon emissions have started it lasted between 5 to 10,000 years. The total Corporation of the Supreme Court high temperature planet Earth over 15 million years. So planet Earth have been plunged into a mass extinction CO2 traps enormous amount of heat energy. But Jared is five to ten thousand time. Of increasing carbon emissions plant life and invertebrate like alligators had time to migrate into the Arctic. The ancient tree for petrified tree that you saw was most likely Left Behind from the paleocene-eocene error 55 million years ago. The rest of the planet most likely cooked kill all tropical and other species on Earth. It's too bad your friend had samples of that petrified wood it would be fascinating to radiocarbon date that would.

[@oldie4210]

@@thetechnicanwithaheart1682 Dwayne died a few years back and I do not know what happened to his personal goods. He did not show me any petrified wood. I remember though he wondered if the earth could of rotated its axis. I believe his story as he was a farmer with no education greater than high school and no aspersions than to be a farmer. Thanks for your info, I appreciate it.

[@electrictroy2010]

The earth has never rotated on its axis, but it has spent 70% of its existence in a tropical state (no ice on poles)

[@izzzzzz6]

Interesting but was he a scientist? Is it possible he mistook basalt columns or other mineral formations for tree stumps. I'm not doubting what he saw just curious as to how this was backed up. Are there any videos on similar petrified stumps in the artic?

[@frankmartin8471]

During the Eemian period some 130,000 years ago (also called the penultimate interglacial period), it was quite warm, sea levels were about 30 feet higher than they are today, and forests were growing north of the Arctic Circle. The earth has gone through some dramatic temperature changes, even in the last 200,000 years or so. We're going to face some challenges adapting to dramatic changes, whatever they may be.

[@Anonymous-nn4sk]

Imagine how many plant and animal species in the arctic went extinct during the cooling after PETM but sea animals may have thrived due to the cooling?

[@onlythewise1]

or died during the ice age which happened a thousand times on earth

[@firstnamelastname2298]

I live in Siberia and I want my rain forests back NOW! :)

[@gphilipc2031]

Poof ...here's a burst of methane.

[@firstnamelastname2298]

@@gphilipc2031 viva la methane hydrate :)

[@helengarrett6378]

Yuriy, I want them back for you too. I am happiest in green places among trees, ferns and among wild flowers. I do not get to experience those things enough now as I live in an urban environment and am elderly. But you should have all of it to lift your heart in joy.

[@bobleclair5665]

OK

[@nickiminajfan2327]

Did it rain vodka

[@pom7602]

Not to mention that life can adapt quite well over millions of years, not in a few decades.

[@firstman9273]

life will be here long after we die off.

[@vhawk1951kl]

What are you calling "life"? You have not the faintest idea? No surprises there. What would an ephemeral creature with an attention span of les than thirty seconds know of years or tens or hundreds or millions of years?

[@Cole-by9xs]

What about what they said was wrong? Why you so mad?​@vhawk1951kl

[@RICKONORATO]

We always hear about how balmy it was in the Arctic during this time, but then what was life like at the equator during this period? Deserts? Unlivable and devoid of life? More tropical rainforests? I'd like to know what the rest of the planet was experiencing when temperatures were so much higher...

[@vladamirkb1]

Very wet everywhere.

[@RICKONORATO]

@@vladamirkb1 I suppose that's true!

[@berniefynn6623]

The only reason the viking got their long boats to America was because of the warming, calmed the seas.

[@matt54321100]

It’s already hellishly hot around the equator and already reaches beyond the heat tolerance of humans. I’d hate to know how bad it would be in those times

[@mattnsac]

@@matt54321100 Humans wouldnt live there. Few people live in the Sahara or in Death Valley for that matter. Conversely, a few degrees colder and the population of England would be closer to Alaska as it would be frozen for all but a few months of the year. Humans will thrive in a warmer climate, the question is what will NOT thrive as a result?

[@idiomasentusiasticos7954]

It’s so weird to think that at one point in time, the internal human body temperature was a cold day.

[@davidhobbs5679]

Australia's inland sea would be an interesting topic. Especially how it slowly dries up and the effect it had on climate.

[@vallonskyles1906]

Yeah it would!

[@KneeJerkReactions13]

Or Canada's. I work at a gravel pit and one truck driver showed me picsof sea turtle fossils. Why do you reckon we have so much oil..

[@bellrugby03]

We still know so little, I lived in central Australia and found an old disused mine that had sea shells, they weren't fossilised, there's even a miniature version of our giant mangrove crabs that survive today in small freshwater rivers in the outback..🤔

[@johnwang9914]

And whether these shallow inland seas could return as oceans rise and ground subsides from thawing permafrost in say Canada.

[@adampickard9880]

+

[@TenThumbsProductions]

Basic cable news should be swapped for Eons, that would be fantastic.

[@lemonvariable72]

BUT THEN HOW WOULD WE FIND OUT ABOUT STORMY DANIELS?

[@sethtenrec6476]

They need to let this guy talk continuously instead of cutting him in every 5 seconds with another explosive sentence. This is interesting subject matter but horribly presented.

[@brianmessemer2973]

Should I give this comment two thumbs up, or ten thumbs up? Either way, agreed.

[@RockbandDrummer321]

Cmon man we cant have the general populas getting more learnt 😉

[@MikeJones-rk1un]

Bill Clinton gets rich behaving like a lech. Any normal standards would sterilize that guy with a hatchet.

[@sebachinger]

Love this channel and the information that you share in a way that is great for all folks to absorb and understand :)

[@BrianEthridge-wk6hz]

I can't even begin to tell you how much I love these videos! Thanks so much!!!

[@alfinito44]

the title of this video should be: when Greenland was green

[@herewardthewake3185]

@JP There's a reason nobody takes stone age numpties like you seriously - You're apparently too stupid to realise that by trying to attack science by misrepresenting it as a religion you're calling religion bad... So you just managed to insult yourself you utter lobotomite *slow clap*

[@PrZemek44]

@JP Yes. Actually, the last time the Earth got warmer was around 1920...

[@lrvogt1257]

@JP : You should read the scientific method one day and you may learn how appallingly ignorant you remark is.

[@ryanvess6162]

@@lrvogt1257 it's actually a great point. It's guesswork. Fancy guesswork. But still guesswork. You can observe the results in the fossil record but any attempt to explain it is just an educated guess.

[@lrvogt1257]

@@PrZemek44 : It has been getting warmer since the last record low in the instrumental record in 1909 and especially so since 1975. climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/global-temperature/

[@ShirinRose]

I wonder what it was like in the rainforests at the poles during the long night of winter.

[@Kram1032]

That really is an interesting question. Wake/Sleep schedules must have been extremely messed up by our standards. All animals would have had to be reasonable at navigating both day and night or else just hide and sleep through most of one or the other, right? And how did plants deal with several months worth of not just less but almost no light followed by months of no night?

[@jessenoell2154]

Fir, spruce trees deal with it today, don't they?

[@Kram1032]

That's true to a point. I think there's a zone past which there basically are no trees anymore? Both in the north and in the south? Although they probably do grow past the polar circles? - We're talking a bit more than 66° up and down. And then a little more on top, because the sun actually reaches farther up and down due to atmospheric light bending. Call it 67°. Apparently the Taiga goes from about 42° - 71°, so a small portion of it will indeed grow well into that area. On the south side, as far as I can tell, the only lands (or ice fields) that far south actually, in fact, are Antarctica. And to my knowledge there do not grow any trees there today? But of course, given the information in the above video, that's likely more due to the challenging cold (far below freezing) and lack of nutrients, rather than lack of sunlight...

[@jimkata77]

The trees likely lost their leaves and went into hibernation from the lack of sunlight just as deciduous trees do today from lack of warmth and light in the winter.

[@RobertBrown-ok2wv]

Shirin Rose Ya, wow. Maybe that's how early hibernation began to emerge.

[@RD9_Designs]

So nice to see a young Hank Greene here! I enjoy him so much on the SciShow channel! PBS should invite him back sometime. Soon! He has cancer!

[@stephenmorse342]

The transient mantle plume under the Faroe Shetland basin at the end of the Palaeocene caused massive uplift of the ocean floor (minimum of 700m to 1000m) and cut off the ocean circulation to and from the north at the time. This has been mooted as one of the contributing factors. Also, a warming sea cannot hold as much CO2 so there is a chicken and egg scenario wrt CO2 and warming.

[@reevethomas1083]

“There was a time, not too long ago...” yep, sure, I remember it like it was yesterday

[@a.randomjack6661]

50 million years is only 0,01111 of Earths history

[@underthetornado]

Lol

[@CeltofCork]

It was called "Age of the Politicians" and it's still ongoing. Global warming can be directly linked to it every time a politician opens their sodding mouth.

[@decimusrex92]

Reeve you are getting a front row seat to the most extreme example of climate change that no other living animal has ever witnessed 😁 Yeaah ! Excellerated into hyperdrive we are watching the very thing that keeps us alive change into something that won't be able to support almost 8 billion of us right now. Just imagine in 30 or 50 years (if your young enough) what an even more out if wack climate trying to support 10 billion. Ain't gonna happen.😖

[@reevethomas1083]

I have no idea what you’re trying to say, but I shall be around in 50 years as I am young enough. But shouldn’t you be extinct by now since you’re a dinosaur?

[@allenroach7503]

Well there you go. You could slap me with a hockey stick!

[@1pixman]

Ha ha ha Michael Mann mr Hockey Stick Just Lost his Case because he Refused to Show How he Got the Numbers he Claimed Caused the Hockey Stick to Curve up.

[@johnnikitakis876]

Well done, I hope everyone got it.

[@rocky5152]

Allen Roach consider yourself slapped via hockey stick! 🏒🏒lol

[@pacalvotan3380]

@@somesilentthoughts5503 Well then you're calling Dr. Tim Ball a liar, because he's already stated this publicly: kzbin.info/www/bejne/mpTHgYBre75ri8k

[@danlalib4292]

1pixman 👍🏻 I discuss this subject with people way more educated than I am and I would consider myself a deniar. Where did you here Mann couldn’t prove his hockey stick theory? I need amo lol

[@anime5h_m1shr4]

Awesome video as always. Once again wish you the very best for a speedy recovery, Hank. You got this.

[@LandonStevens]

I still giggle when I think “wow what a trustworthy sounding man” only to look down to see Hank Green

[@bravo2p366]

There is a large bowl shaped area, south of Prudhoe Bay Alaska with alligator vertebrae and cyprus leaves. Coolest thing I have ever saw.

[@PV-re8kd]

Woah.. that's surely some sight to watch

[@antoniograncino3506]

Does it have a name ?

[@ModernGentleman]

Seen*

[@simianto9957]

Name?

[@vhawk1951kl]

Who told you that and why do you believe them?

[@stevencole7331]

It would be interesting to see maps of the world with types of climates during this period for all areas

[@Now_lets_get_this_straight]

Because some areas that were hot then are now cold and areas cold are now hot. Something like what’s going on with the magnet North Pole moving in today’s world, oops, spoiler alert!

[@MrPaknight]

Just look at the layers in any hillside!

[@wsdimenna5244]

They don’t like publishing those because it destroys the man causes climate change

[@Jordello3000]

I can make one up for you

[@alisdairsmith5945]

@@wsdimenna5244 did you pay attention to the video?

[@seniorskateboarder5958]

I like stories about the earliest life in earth, the giant bugs and spiders being the dominant life form. Also, the different kinds of stationary animals that grew in the oceans. And that giant ice age wherein even the oceans froze over. I find all that fascinating. I wonder how big the spiders got!

[@user-yv6vx]

I would love to know how big the spiders got. Also, people say animals like shrimp are the insects of the sea and yet they have meat we eat. If a spider leg was as large as a chicken leg, I wonder if it would contain tasty meat

[@electrictroy2010]

Insects originated in the sea as shrimp, lobsters, crabs, etc. They evolved the ability to extract oxygen direct from the air & live on land

[@electrictroy2010]

Snowball earth is when ice covered the whole planet. Almost no life existed then

[@DrSmooth2000]

@@electrictroy2010 Runaway Icehouse Effect check out the Azola Event. I'm worried if geoengineering tips us into such a spiral

[@vhawk1951kl]

You*would*ike stories about the earliest life in earth, the giant bugs and spiders being the dominant life form, but do not seem able to grasp that they are *only* stories. The definition of a *story*? Anything you are told* , but cannot verify for yourself. What you call the past, and science, are no more than*stories* Of course you like stories, because you are passive and they require nothing active from you. Beings of the passive sex or women are and must be passive in relation to beings of the active sex; nothing active is required if them; for you the story is the active and you passive-nothing is required of you. It is not just you in particular but all man(human beings) They just passively accept what they are told, true?-not true? Why do you suppose it is that all men including you and your servant here present are so passive? whose or what's purpose are served that you, I and all men (human beings) are so predisposed to be passive?

[@douglasdimwitty-zs9gx]

Depends on who you're listening to but the Australians are saying we're going the opposite direction and entering a ice age no one knows for sure, but one thing is certain the poles are drifting and the equator has changed. No one talks about that.

[@sion8]

The video should have either being subtitled or just titled _"When Greenland was _*_actually_*_ green!"_

[@sevtecsev]

Just think! When global warming is complete,we will be driven to the poles, all who stayed back will be fried. Those who have the skills to live in arctic zones will then be killed off by the new environment if they cannot adapt. When there is global cooling (via Milankovich cycles, perhaps,) those who have developed advanced technology will be frozen while hunter-gatherers at the equator will live, and a new society will emerge, without the advanced technology. No wonder ancient societies left evidence in large blocks of stone, only.

[@davidmanzi4491]

The difference is that current warming is man-made, back then, who knows? Don't dismiss warming based on political beliefs.

[@davidmanzi4491]

Yes, I have. I'm a born skeptic, and the science says that we're not only warming, but at a historic rate, and the trillions of tons of CO2 we're dumping into the atmosphere is a principal cause. Then again, maybe we can simply dump trillions of tons of CO2 into the air and it won't have any effect, right?

[@Junieper]

Charles Nelson Wait, so you're telling me that because CO2 is a small part of the atmosphere, it only has a small effect? In that case, would you like a small amount of strychnine?

[@Sectionmanifold]

Charles Nelson The medieval warm period is definitely reflected in Mann, Bradley & Hughes Hockey stick. It's just dwarfed by current warming. "ell have you considered that CO2 comprises just 1/25th part of ONE percent of the earth's atmosphere?" Have you considered how CO2 affects the IR window in the atmosphere and the other gasses don't?

[@oldibarra-tutu2253]

I Live in Australia and I want all our forests back and the our Koalas too.

[@foundunwanted713]

🌿🌱💚

[@wadeinn463]

Shouldn’t have loved all your coal.

[@scottleft3672]

They havn't changed, look at Mitchell's maps....the areas burnt last year are all...ALL... green again, you can just see the burnt wood through the green, the natives burned at leisure...and ate Koalas....lots of them....they simply didnt let the fuel build up underneath trees....as the flora here needs no furtilizer.

[@blogengeezer4507]

-Extreme Drought, fire conditions burning overgrown land mass, lasting many years, followed by extreme rainfall, flooding, lush overgrowth, lasting many years. The entire, endlessly repetitive life history..... of AUS

[@LK-pc4sq]

Its not going to happen. The sad thing is in the next 30-50 years if Co2 emissions continue its clime it will make most countries around the equator uninhabitable.

[@ericbollinger9321]

I love your content, I was wondering about early earth when the moon was close, 3 kilometer tides racing around the planet

[@celticlass8573]

That would be something to see!

[@w.reidripley1968]

Don't think it was ever that close in, even in the Archaean.

[@nata3467]

love all these mini documentaries

[@Avocadomolotov]

You know what I'd love? If you guys did a time line of life on earth with a map of the earth the way it was at the time you are talking about. It would help me get a better idea of life on earth.

[@jamesmule]

Erik Lervold Yup, that'd be awesome, with max/min temperatures, common animals, names of epoch, eons, ages and whatnot.

[@shelleysteva2251]

Not that different from now except for Northern Europe and Northern North America being very close to each other. That is another idea why it was so warm then- many volcanoes in the valley

[@Pikefish]

+

[@njebei]

I've always liked this video that is similar to what you want - kzbin.info/www/bejne/fX_QhpdqaNWUmMk It's not perfect but it helps me get a better understanding of how the world looked as things changed. If you want a book, I like Orgins by Ron Redfern. Easy to understand with lots of pictures. books.google.com/books?id=PqyMMs--IM4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

[@Avocadomolotov]

thank you so much for that video! i am gonna watch it a couple of dozen times

[@chuckrambo4401]

Some people think the Earth has never gone through changes except for the Industrial Age

[@scottabc72]

The changes from the Industrial Age are happening much faster than natural processes with the exception of things like asteroid strikes and megaeruptions

[@timwade1266]

your point? Eruptions still occur and they are more "mega" than the combined effects of the Industrial Age. Additionally, its not possible to gauge the effect of man since 1.) man is here and 2.) who would do the measuring.

[@scottabc72]

@@timwade1266 Its not possible to perfectly gauge any kind of complex system if its complex enough and thats certainly true of planetary climate. There are plenty of ways to get good information though about the past, ice cores from glaciers for example. There are plenty of smart people who have jobs figuring this stuff out. We cant stop a mega eruption from occurring but we definitely can and should control our own behavior.

[@dpchait7793]

These are the same people who believe that they need to get the current corporate global governance injection

[@johnbatson8779]

@@scottabc72 complete nonsense, the globe had an accelerated warming period from 1700-1730 and was not related to the Industrial Revolution...and the medieval warming period, 1000-1300 CE, actually caused viticulture to occur both at Greenland and Scotland. so the temps must have risen more than 2 degrees C to have this phenomenon to occur

[@geraldmeehan8942]

This week (today is March 27, 2022) temperatures were 40°c above average in Antarctica and 30°c above average in the Arctic.

[@nebulaunfolding]

Hot tub ocean? Lush green forests? No more ice? Bring it on baby!

[@tonytackett2885]

I would love to share with you photos of petrified Palm trees still visible in the mountain railroad cut away in Southeast Kentucky . Approximately 20" in diameter . Solid rock but crumbling .

[@paul9120]

Just do some research online and you will find many, many things that so called science does not talk about. There are petrified giants all over the Earth....why don't they point these out. There are many fossilized footprints of man alongside dinosaur prints......they do not point these out either. Those of them who who even try to point these things out will be snubbed and chastised for it....you know, like termination of funding for research. The people who hold the money purse control the narative and guess what....their narrative will not lead you towards truth.

[@vhawk1951kl]

You have " crumbled said rocks for yourself? No, I rather though not. Whoever said that men (human beings) are as credulous as imbecile children is obviously the patron saint of those in the business of lying for money or in the advertising business.

[@m444ss]

@@vhawk1951kl ??? what ???

[@chrishenicke2052]

There are big pieces of petrified palms in south Texas too.

[@robbyddurham1624]

I've got a tree fossil that looks like a snake skin. It's some kind of palm tree. Found it here in Kentucky in the outlet of a mountain spring, mouth of a small creek.

[@kylealexander7024]

20°C is 68°F for anyone wondering out there. Sounds like the arctic woulda been real nice to swim in

[@elizabethsullivan7176]

And at the rate we're going we'll be able to swim in it again soon.

[@vere9652]

If U.S. would use Celsius like the rest of the world, that would be amazing

[@kylealexander7024]

@@vere9652 we use both but sure. For example my 12 oz beer is 355 ml. Virtually everything is measured both ways here. Its not that hard to change degrees to celsius. Every degree C is literally 1.8 F.

[@kylealexander7024]

@@elizabethsullivan7176 i honestly dont think theres any way to change it at this point. We needed to start decades ago to have any meaningful impact. Our species is very reactionary in general. Dont tend to deal with problems outside of the time we can fathom

[@jean-marclamothe8859]

Kyle Alexander 😅😂🤣 go listen to Hans Rosling video on how to stop to be misinformed

[@janemorrow6672]

Fantastic video. Shared multiple times.

[@mosslandia]

Good info... I had to slow the video to 75% speed. When the speaker talks so quickly, my brain doesn't have time to process one bit of information before the next one comes.

[@vigilantsycamore8750]

As TV Tropes put it: imagine all the dangers of the rainforest, AND IT'S DARK FOR HALF THE YEAR

[@vigilantsycamore8750]

"Everything Trying to Kill You."

[@icwiz]

wait. wait....how DID that work? How do you have rainforests in places where the sun doesn't shine for 6 months out of the year?

[@taylorwestmore4664]

I want a paleo-botanist to explain that one for me too. Were plants in the highest latitudes adapted for some crazy hibernation period? Like Evergreen trees that went dormant for 6 months?

[@Areanyusernamesleft]

icwiz it's an exaggeration, but some parts of polar regions can spend a few weeks during winter without the sun appearing to rise above the horizon.

[@terpjr]

Exactly! The models are easy to rely on, but they don't always mesh with common sense.

[@allancrow134]

I can't imagine a tropical forest in the Arctic because it's an ocean, albeit a currently frozen one. When it thaws it will still be an ocean except it will be 200 ft deeper. Now a tropical forest in the Antarctic, I can imagine that. :)

[@Yuehanlad]

When the Arctic was a tropical forest the continents were in a different position to what they are now.

[@faytleingod9592]

I love this point

[@michael.Briggs]

There's plenty of land in the arctic. Ask Norway, Finland, Sweden, Greenland, Canada, the U.S and Russia. The arctic starts at 66° 34' N

[@allancrow134]

@@michael.Briggs Of course. :)

[@rhrh2025]

Half of it warmed up last summer, and it's doing it again this year!

[@tragically.rachel]

It sure would be beneficial for us today to figure out how the PETM ended!

[@qibli7679]

I love how the music in this episode sounds like a section from spore - which is fitting to this channel's theme.

[@jbw6823]

Spore?

[@titsmcgeeyolanda3755]

Lol

[@starlight0313]

Another WoF fan, *interesting*

[@613naturalfitness2]

The earths history is so amazing and vast. Even if you spent every second of your life studying it you woudnt even get close to knowing it all.

[@garrick3rd]

Are you SURE??? WOW!!! Guess I won't spend ANOTHER MINUITE learning.... SOMETHING!

[@JustJessee]

Thanks for triggering everyones FOMO

[@electrictroy2010]

Now imagine being a cosmologist, and having to learn the history of billions of stars (and their planets) .

[@elizabethsullivan7176]

I wouldn't want to know it all. I like learning new things.

[@sergeymyasnikov736]

And that's why science was developed - so you wouldn't need to know every occurrence of something and could instead learn patterns. Also, your comment doesn't take into consideration a possibility for technological singularity and/or brain upload.

[@ant-1382]

Good documentary, nice have it a little longer and more detailed.

[@hannahgendron7094]

Love reading these comments and seeing how many people were on their phones and not paying attention.

[@tallymcdonnells5453]

Good one! But one thing I would have liked to seen addressed is the matter of sunlight. Even if the poles go tropical they still have to contend with having dramatically unequal lengths of daylight during the winter and summer. It could be that massive decomposition every winter had something to do with it. At the very least it makes me wonder if this with where the deciduous tree comes from.

[@Uluwehi_Knecht]

Even the tropics today have deciduous trees, it's not a trait restricted to temperate forests.

[@disconer]

If the Earth was perpendicular to the sun at the equator, would solve that

[@george2113]

The ginkgo is a living fossil. It is the oldest surviving tree species, having remained on the planet, relatively unchanged for some 200 million years. A single ginkgo may live for hundreds of years, maybe more than a thousand.Jan 15, 2020

[@TBonerton]

Deciduous trees do not lose their leaves unless the TEMPERATURE drops to a point where the lush green would wilt and die. It has nothing to do with amount of sunlight. All of the houseplants in my home continue to grow through winter, even though the light is about 1/3 of what it is in summer.

[@Mr.Unacceptable]

The poles were never warm the landmass that is the pole now was at the equator then.

[@rudigereichler4112]

Please make an episode ”The last time the globe cooled”. After all ice ages are longer than interglacials.

[@Mordalo]

No money in reality, just fantasy. Hollywood is proof. :)

[@jillian2851]

This would tend to reinforce the opposite of what these Globalist and Socialist are intending. Americans are being brain-washed by Socialist media and to make matters worse, we are paying for it as well.

[@stevegrimes3664]

No, this has nothing to do with ice ages or interglacials. The PETM was 56 million years ago, the current glaciation began ~2.6 million years ago. (The last ice age before that ended 260 million years ago.)

[@DarrenSemotiuk]

So weird that graph @9:16 only goes back as far as 1880, instead of, say, the 1400s... Can't imagine what that reason is :hmmm:

[@jwarmstrong]

@@DarrenSemotiuk Few temperature records were kept except +/- 2 degrees because most thermometer were not accurate - the earth is 200 million sq miles so satellites are required to measure everywhere

[@runningbear1982]

I didn't know Hank used to work for Eons. That's pretty cool.

[@efranlaboy554]

I seen that already happening in earth the Tunguska areas in where the tundras are the permafrost is melting and the smell tells me that

[@eugenexia3634]

I want to know how much of the current land mass was under the ocean during that warm period.

[@latenighter1965]

Large portions. Our ice caps are only a few million years old. They documented this in one of their episodes. Yet once the ice age hit our oceans dropped drastically, we know this also because we found cities that were are now under water that were above water 5,000+ years ago.

[@jbw6823]

There are sites on the web that can show you this.

[@perrysmith1838]

I think sea levels were 75 metres higher.

[@jbw6823]

@@perrysmith1838 similar to the 200 plus ft mentioned above your comment

[@perrysmith1838]

@@jbw6823 I didnt read the comments i just answered. But now at least the Europeans will understand .

[@azpete6436]

The axial tilt oscillation also is in play, causing the arctic circle to shift to the North.

[@azpete6436]

@Marcus Maris can't stand facts?

[@psyclone500tv8]

@Marcus Maris How about you shutup and look at all the proof of how real this is

[@selenaichtis6762]

@Marcus Maris Learn basic grammar before telling others to shut up.

[@iancurtis1152]

The magnetic poles are shifting constantly as well.

[@klauskarpfen9039]

These are much shorter cycles than the one he is talking baout, which was an extra-cyclic event that started with a yet unidentified cause for emission of greenhouse gases.

[@michaelbindner9883]

Barent's Sea warmed one degree Celsius per year, and we cannot stop it while burning gasoline on paved roads and parking lots.

[@mikedebois7776]

If the oceans were that warm, I can only guess that there were alot of strong hurricanes.

[@cascas1116]

I agree with you, 56 million years ago is not long ago.

[@StoryGordon]

The two most recent global warming trends were during WWII (Can you guess why?) and during the last five years. The data is here data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/

[@marioandloveyaplushmasters3374]

Now try the eemian warm period

[@StoryGordon]

@Slomofogo - ? The process is very simple. Global warming causes evaporation putting moisture in the atmosphere which has only one way to go. Rain, snow, both are the same effect. Cold and warm temperatures are due to the tilt of the earth's axis. Global warming increases all precipitation.

[@notthisguy5068]

How long before you can "skip ad".

[@randysavage1]

@@StoryGordon stop using science to school us millennials who get climate change information from netflix and face book. Its not like EVERY STUDY where they tested ancient ice, shows we have a major ice age after 100000 years global warming......oh thats right they do

[@krzyktty101]

I think a video about the birth of the Appalachian Mountains and what has made them stay around so long would be interesting.

[@tr33m00nk]

@krzyktty101 & @Sean Cauffiel Since you're interested: the Appalachian Mts. have at their core precambrian rock called the "Grenville Province" which extends in a band from Mexico to Labrador, Canada. It's over 1,000,000,000 (billion) years old. There are younger sedimentary rocks on top and so it gets complicated. The Adirondacks are an exposed part of the Grenville Province and part of the Appalachians. For more mind altering details read "Written in Stone" by Chet & Maureen Raymo >> www.amazon.com/Written-Stone-Chet-Raymo/dp/1883789273/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&qid=1545409730&sr=8-4&keywords=written+in+stone

[@hayhayhay96]

When you re watch this 6 years after its first posted. And in that time the SST around florida has already reached hot tub temps albeit briefly. But it will increase in rate of occurrence

[@trissyboulton]

Fascinating and informative!!!!

Northern Alberta Canada once had crocodiles.

[@kimweaver3323]

That was when it was much nearer to the equator. Continents move, you know.

[@haroldcochan3971]

They still do, they live underneath my trailer in Edmonton.

@@haroldcochan3971 no those are just newts. Everything is bigger in Edmonton.

[@lukula2934]

Yes and You can find prehistoric shark teeth all over the Alps...Change is the only constant.

[@angrytedtalks]

I thought he was a lobster? And moved to Toronto as a Psychology Professor...

[@daveat191]

How about a timeline between Ice Ages, sea levels, warm periods, the homo species, forests and desertification, super volcanoes and their relationships ending with current global warming.

[@electrictroy2010]

Wikipedia has several timelines showing the changing temperatures over the last 4 billion years. The earth cycles back and forth between Ice Ages and Tropical Ages (no ice on the poles) .

[@lunaflamed]

Don’t forget THE SUN. You can forget the Grand Solar Maximums and Grand Solar Minimums. Not like the Sun is the biggest most powerful thing in our entire SolarSystem or anything.

[@robertturner5848]

Great presentation!

[@reuireuiop0]

When Hank said the Forearms just disappeared, for a second I thought he suddenly switched to T Rex feeling the heat :D

[@christianlouiebalicante3901]

I am glad they used Celsius 😂😂

[@superchuck3259]

Actually in the mid 1990s the thermometers being used were changed around the world. The accuracy is different. Also in the past, the thermometers were mercury and now days all electronic. Also for the old measuring stations, they used to be in open areas and now homes and parking lots have surrounded them adding to heating. So the records due to way things are being measured are suspect. So Sadly the "scientists" play with their models as opposed to caring about accuracy of real measures. If is upsetting that instead of saying, this is the measure, that it needs to be tweaked thru some sort of model filter, "Derived from the MERRA2 reanalysis over 1980-2015." was the disclaimer on the "GISTEMP Seasonal Cycle since 1880" graph. I do not like being manipulated.

[@austinnelson396]

Christian Louie Balicante You do realize that scientists (in the USA) generally use the metric system as their measurement standard, right?

[@mikeythesquid1427]

they tried to teach the metric system when I was in grade school, sadly, even the teachers didn't understand it.

[@kerryrus]

I wish they used Kelvin.

[@Cretaal]

Kelvin is useless on a domestic level, our temperature readouts would be more cluttered than a JRPG stat sheet.

[@irishart4793]

Ahh come on guys don't worry about it, we are just one supervolcano away from becoming extinct and the planet gets a new type of life form

[@Kimoto504]

Except the supervolcano is just hypothetical. Human induced climate change is a given. The presenter glanced but didn't elaborate on another important fact: We're causing the temp change rapidly which gives virtually no time for us or other organisms to adapt. PETM took thousands of years... enough for our predecessors to evolve significantly.

[@irishart4793]

@Alexander Supertramp I wanted to come back hard at your reply but I loved Supertramp so I will just say "maybe not but it will mess up your day off"

[@StarboyXL9]

Nothing wrong with that. We've obviously failed. I say the next species should het their chance. I'm rooting for octopi Also. Man-made climate change isn't real. Stop acting like children and believing everything old people tell you.

[@irishart4793]

@@StarboyXL9 😂🤣 octopi haa ha love it, I am rooting for crabs 50 ft crabs or crustacean tanks yaay

[@hypershard8935]

Joel Gawne do you have anything to back that claim up?

[@navyphil6105]

Very informative and fact based.

[@stevieokc]

I got some news for this guy. Thing don't stay the same. We are all constantly changing.

[@Vulcano7965]

My inner geologist screams with joy everytime I see a new episod of Eons. You guys do your homework, thanks for being awesome!

[@jeffreyvences4361]

Bew things are awesome!!!

[@Vulcano7965]

@@jeffreyvences4361 they are indeed! :D

[@vhawk1951kl]

Try aeons, not that it signifies or matters

[@Vulcano7965]

@@vhawk1951kl It's the name of the channel? Not sure what you want to say.

[@vhawk1951kl]

@@Vulcano7965 What is the name of the channel?- Nonsense for credulous Elsies?

[@delatorrecaleb]

A large volcano eruption can take over the whole atmosphere.

[@JBebop84]

Caleb Delatorre Yosemite will do that

[@dzerres]

It's probably our only hope to cool the planet at least temporarily. The only problem is there's no control over how much and how long. Either way we, over the long run, are screwed.

[@bundleofperceptions1397]

So can a large meteor, so what's your point?

[@lrvogt1257]

Yes, but most volcanic eruptions have a fairly short term cooling effect. Industry produces 60 times the average annual output of CO2 as volcanoes. And we have no control over volcanoes. We do have control over industrial emissions.

[@kenprice1961]

@@JBebop84 Nothing in Yosemite...…….maybe you meant YELLOWSTONE.

[@maartenvd2653]

So there were rain-forests at the north and south pole... perhaps, but i think not as lush as the rain-forests in the current tropics: there is just not enough energy (light) for plants to grow that much and and the winters are completely dark.

[@xroukle8137]

Tropical grassland?

[@DrSmooth2000]

@@xroukle8137 fossils suggest a redwood dominant arctic ecosystem, like British Columbia. There are trees all over Alaska now and that's barely subarctic.

[@Waylanification]

4 years later the summer of 2022 records the warmest summer in 500 years

[@ssssaa2]

1 trillion times better than Snowball Earth.

[@Sectionmanifold]

No.

[@ri3m4nn]

Yes

[@Sectionmanifold]

@@ri3m4nn I don''t think you understand how hot it its going to get. A superglacial event would be bad but you could counter it with CO2 buring as much coal for heat as you like. Current projections for current emmissions lead to humans being limited to the Arctic circle and perhaps AntArctic colonies in a couple of centuries.

[@ri3m4nn]

@@Sectionmanifold actually, we know. Google: PETM

[@ri3m4nn]

@@Sectionmanifold here, let me help you: kzbin.info/www/bejne/r3rTdaGdfNJombM

[@TerryJLaRue]

Interesting video. However, I heard no mention of the Milankovitch cycles, which have to do with 3 changes in the earth-sun relationship. They are precession, a cycle of about 25,000 years, axis deviation, over about 40,000 years, and orbital changes, which cycle about every 100,000 years or so. These changes have significant effect on climate change over long periods. They have no noticeable effects over short periods of, say, 3 or 4000 years, but over the much longer term, they are very significant.

[@angeleyes2c]

PETM is not linked to Milankovitch cycles but to volcanic activity releasing co2.

[@mrpoquah]

@@angeleyes2c as in the Siberian traps that dumped some 700,000 cubic miles of rock and lava to the surface. Just think about the C02 levels when that finished.

[@brianhillis3701]

@@angeleyes2c which this video goes to great lengths to say is not true. That would mean they need to explain the vulcanism. They say it is biogenic carbon. They have great faith in carbon ratios where it has been proven that too many things like decay and sunlight alter the ratios significantly and beyond about 12000 years ago it is meaningless.

[@Ivan.A.Trulyuski]

Mid warmth of the Holocene period 6000 years ago vs the climate today suggests to me they have a large noticeable effect.

[@blakessite]

I was just going to say that.

[@bobbyburtonphotography]

Just imagine, one day everyone will finally realize “oh, there are too many humans.”

[@sylvesterdesir8472]

Such spectacular hypothesis !!!!

[@brittemiller8939]

Commnets and engagement here is just as interesting as this video . Great job everyone!

[@disco1974ever]

Actually this was bang-on!!! I would like to see more about Earths Climate History thanks.

[@ShavinMcCrotch]

6:00 unbearably hot equator- "…as high as 36°C", basically the average temperature of Houston, TX from June to October.

[@lrvogt1257]

What may be normal in one place is not normal when it's everywhere.

[@mark2359]

Temperatures no human has seen..so far.. Big Oil: Hold my beer.

[@cstcomputers]

Moral of the story, the Earth didn't end but actually got better, and the idea that we can change that is preposterous.

[@roargathor]

Go home, you're drunk.

[@dennisvance4004]

roargathor so the earth didn’t end when it got hotter than it is now? How terrible that we had rain forests all around the earth and tropical jungles at the poles.

[@austinross5188]

Polar dinosaurs would be an interesting topic. Many species of very different forms were present within the arctic circle, including hadrosaurs, tyranosaurs, dromeaosaurs, and ceratopsians. We know some of those species to not have any evidence of feathers, going as far as to have evidence supporting the contrary (hadrosaurs, I'm looking at you). These must have been some pretty resilient animals to have been so successful in that region.

[@extradeluxe141]

My only guess would be Continental Shift. Those "polar regions" were probably by the equator at that time.

[@homurseempsone154]

you've got it. There were no arctic regions back then like we have today. Although, Australia during the Cretaceous was very close to where Antarctica is now. Thats why a lot of dinosaurs from there during that time have such big eyes compared to everywhere else because of the months of darkness

[@bundleofperceptions1397]

WTF are you talking about? That region was lush with vegetation, so why would they need to be resilient?

[@aaronelijahcolyer]

or there was just no ice or very little at that time... a comet hit the earth at one time and flash froze parts of the planet, that's how the woolly mammoth was frozen standing up with food still in its mouth... our planet has been warming every since

[@JasonLewis42]

Maybe they should paint all the rooftops and parking lots reflective white to bounce a lot of the suns heat back out into space.

[@lrvogt1257]

It is being done but be sure you tell "them" to get to it.

[@annjay7487]

Huh, the arctic has no land mass, its a block of ice! Did you mean antarctica?

[@geckovonparsley8200]

I would love an episode on how fingernails developed.

[@ALXMARTIN]

Gecko Von Parsley why

[@demonicsnowh.280]

I believe they covered it in a episode, or it was explained in one of their videos about hominids.

[@michaelcampbell5567]

Fingernails were claws at some point and as they had less impact on survival, they faded away million or so years ago. Some primates still have claws.

[@scottleft3672]

CLAWS.

[@rogersimon3336]

@@michaelcampbell5567 you can still make them into claws ya know. Just gotta plan it out, and sharpen as you want and they naturally curl out so there you go

[@NOSEBLOB]

"Let's go for a walk." "Can't. Everything is on fire."

[@lostpony4885]

Note to self, be a fish

[@JA238979]

Calmly step away from the fire and go somewhere else.

[@JA238979]

@Nic Eizy I don't have to worry about those things, but I still don't know exactly what to do and where to go when it is time to leave the area where I live now. Migrating and moving are usually difficult.

[@Ispeakthetruthify]

@@JA238979 Don't worry, you have PLENTY of time. These processes usually take thousands of years to have drastic effects. And when one area becomes hotter and drier, that usually means another area becomes cooler and wetter.

[@JA238979]

@@Ispeakthetruthify Thank you for a calm message amid so much alarm. You're right that some areas will be cooler than others, but we are losing the planet.

[@tecumsehcristero]

I wish Chicago, New York and Philadelphia were tropical right now.

[@shawnmartin1306]

Cool we will get to see what is under the Artic soon enough. Let’s speed this along

[@SirCharles12357]

I'm curious about how the coral reefs survived this event.

[@elijahmikhail4566]

Because it happened in the span of millions of years, coral reefs probably had time to slowly migrate into warming seas towards the poles.

[@SKy_the_Thunder]

Some corals survived somewhere and (re)-populated the reefs we know today once the conditions became more favorable.

[@scaper8]

As others have said, it was the speed of the change. In natural warming and cooling cycles (even really extreme ones like this) it takes long enough for species to move and/or adapt. When it happens too rapidly, like now, there isn't enough time for most species to do so.

[@MrMartibobs]

Although coral reefs have been around for over 500 million years, the Great Barrier Reef for example is relatively young at 500,000 years, and this most modern form is only 8,000 years old, having developed after the last ice age.

[@SiRGnOmEGuY]

scaper8 - according to the sun, we did this already in the 1600-1700s. maunder minimum.

[@caseyferguson6076]

It's amazing how we know all of this. Yet none of us were alive then

[@ShellymanStudios]

I was.

[@MF-LXRD]

It's not amazing it's called science.

[@alanstephens7022]

Casey Ferguson we Don’t know this. The data is wrong because it dismisses the Sun and it’s well known cycles. It’s known as Solar Forcing. Unfortunately the case is more dire.

[@mrbyorself]

It's amazing how scientists live in space, orbiting our planet. Yet space is inhospitable to humans.

[@shaun6828]

@@alanstephens7022theness.com/neurologicablog/index.php/solar-forcing-and-climate-change/ The science behind how CO2 reflects infrared light and the human extraction of CO2 deposits from below the earth's surface are easily demonstrable and pretty obvious causes for global warming. scied.ucar.edu/carbon-dioxide-absorbs-and-re-emits-infrared-radiation Visible and ultraviolet sunlight hits the surface of the earth and warms it. The warmed surface emits infrared radiation (like what night vision goggles view). That radiation mostly passes through the atmosphere and escapes to space. When you add some extra CO2 and it's a bit like adding some silver on a piece of glass. You get a mirror effect that reflects more of that infrared radiation back at the ground where it is absorbed again. It's just a small increase in energy being trapped, but overtime it adds up.

[@Evan.the.Butler]

My global warming climate science class mentioned Antarctica moving to the South Pole contributed to the cooling at the thermal maximum's end. Since ice forms easier on land, any cooler temperature could more easily form ice and kickstart the Ice-Albedo feedback. Did that contribute a lot, or was it more minor/uncertain?

[@thetechnicanwithaheart1682]

Sorry hun that is wrong. Co2 emissions fro.v800,000 years ago to the industrial age was stable. Co2 is the main climate regulstor of earth. Without co2 earth would have turned into a ice ball amd life would ever exist.

[@Evan.the.Butler]

@@thetechnicanwithaheart1682 Even without us, CO2 concentrations can fluctuate. Look up a graph of CO2 concentrations over the last 800,000 yrs. During the ice ages, atmospheric CO2 fluctuated up and down with the ice sheet coverage, and it didn't take a direct path to preindustrial levels. You're right that CO2 is one of the main climate regulators, but it is also slow to react and there are other components that interfere (for example, land mass position, milankovitch cycles, and even types of life). And yes, without CO2 Earth would be too cold for life, but life can handle different amounts of CO2, even if it couldn't handle a lack of it.

[@thetechnicanwithaheart1682]

Excuse the misspelling but I'm using voice to text I'm not going to correct it

[@Jeremy-ws9tv]

Best argument for addressing global warming: Big Snake

[@panchovilla3790]

Lived in Texas all my life seen hot summers of over 100 degrees everyday and saw warmer summers of lower 90`s. Seen cold winters of 5 degrees and some where you could go outdoors and have a picnic. After 65 years of living, it is just how it is, if the jet stream stays north mild winters, if it comes down it is cold winters. There have been ice ages and warm periods on the Earth since day 1 of week 1.

[@AG-el6vt]

Weather is not the same as climate. And local climate patterns do not necessary follow the same trends as global patterns.

[@jamison1323]

@@AG-el6vt yeah sure you've been brainwashed first it was global warming now is climate change now weather is not climate you people f****** idiots

[@CarbonGlassMan]

@@AG-el6vt Why aren't cities under water like I've been being told would happen for 40 years now? You say weather is not climate until a hurricane hits land. Then your climate change is all about the weather.

[@tjswan9935]

In August the temperature was 95°... In January it was 35°.. That's a 60° temperature drop in only 5 months... If that doesn't convince you that climate change is real.. Nothing will

[@markthervguy]

I live in southern New Mexico and we had a rather mild summer, with only a single day in June to hit 100*. Last year I believe it was 12 or 14 days above 100*. July was about normal with a couple days around 105*. Hot, but not unusual. Certainly not a hotter year over year as the global warming prophets keep saying. The sun is in a Mulder minimum and has set several records for no sunspot at all. It will be interesting to see how this winter goes with a quiet sun.

[@fakereality96]

I miss the days when we were all proud of having saved an acre of rainforest, the internet wasn't really a thing, and the hardest choice that had to be made was Super Nintendo or Sega Genesis.

[@ginablanshard8255]

yes - and it's impossible to 'un-know"

[@ModernGentleman]

Super Nintendo, obviously.

[@blackiedekat2612]

........and .Frogger' was available for both...............................

[@stephenbunn2150]

Saying it aways happened, will not get government grants, but gloom and doom will get grants as ‘we “ need panic

[@bolo2393]

The ocean was too hot and acidic for life. The organisms that live on volcanic vents at the bottom of the ocean: hold my beer

[@sellers737]

I never want these videos to end

[@eons]

Yay, because we never want to stop making them! (BdeP)

[@TheRickerX]

Don't worry, they go on for eons.

[@sizanogreen9900]

I'll take your word for it:3

[@lorekeeper685]

Rick Janssen wynut aeons?

[@chatteyj]

What about that big orange bright hot thing in the sky, does that have any effect on the planets temperature and climate? Clue: it does. (A very big effect.)

[@zekelerossignol7590]

You should do a video on Earth's recovery from the KT mass extinction sometime.

[@jc.1191]

Katie is pretty ruthless...

[@sikskillz2186]

very cool show. where would be considered the best place to live if the warming raise sea level, yet is extremely hot in temperature?

[@inmyopinion6662]

The last time the globe warmed life thrived.

[@sH-ed5yf]

Because they had millions of years to adapt

[@inmyopinion6662]

@@sH-ed5yf For an ice age maybe. Not warming.

[@sH-ed5yf]

@@inmyopinion6662 oh yes, warming. They had tens of thousands and millions of years.

[@scottcaldwell8515]

Thank you for leaving references. Not enough people do.

[@sue08401]

So I should start to build up the number of my Turtle soup recipes and buy some beach property on the Arctic?

[@15ironreaver]

I spend a pretty ridiculous amount of time fantasizing about going back in time hundred of thousands to millions of years and being able to explore Earth with my camera.

[@thorn-1]

Traditional radiocarbon dating is applied to organic remains between 500 and 50,000 years old This makes me wonder about some of his statements

[@lrvogt1257]

There are many studies and many types of carbon dating.