England's Best Mercenary Export Hit: Sir John Hawkwood and the White Company

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This is the story of how a band of English mercenaries revolutionized tactics in Italy, came to dominate Renaissance politics, and arguably laid the foundation for the age of the condottieri. It is the story of the White Company and the cunning John Hawkwood-acute general, loyal Englishman, and, most importantly, endlessly avaricious mercenary.
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Some must read mlitary history books:
Ambrose, S. E., Band of Brothers: E Company, 2001. amzn.to/438ltvZ
Baime, A. J., The Accidental President: Harry S. Truman, 2017. amzn.to/3TcDGUj
Beard, M., Emperor of Rome: Ruling the Ancient Roman World, 2023. amzn.to/49L2olR
Bevoor, A., Stalingrad: The Fateful Siege: 1942-1943, 1999. amzn.to/4a4rqwe
Beevor, A., The Second World War, 2013. amzn.to/3wNFITu
Brennan, P+D., Gettysburg in Color, 2022. amzn.to/48LGldG
Clausewitz, C., On War, 2010. amzn.to/3Vblf5
Kaushik, R., A Global History of Pre-Modern Warfare: 10,000 BCE-1500 CE, 2021. amzn.to/49Mtqt7
McPherson, J., Battle Cry of Freedom, The Civil War Era, 2021. amzn.to/3TseYAW
Tsu, S., The Art of War, 2007, amzn.to/3TuknHA
Sledge. E. B., With the Old Breed: At Peleliu and Okinawa, 2008. amzn.to/439olIK
Pomerantsev, P., How to Win an Information War, 2024. amzn.to/3Ts0YqQ
Bibliography:
Caferro, W., Articles, Warfare and Economy in Renaissance Italy, 1350-1450, In: The Journal of Interdisciplinary History vol. 39 (2008) p. 167-210.
Caferro, William P., Hawkwood: Florentine Hero and Faithful Englishman, in: The Hundred Years War. Different vistas p. 295-328.
Caferro, William P., "The fox and the lion": the White Company and the Hundred Years War in Italy, In: The Hundred Years War. A wider focus, 2005 p. 179-210.
Caferro, William P., Slaying the hydra-headed beast: Italy and the companies of adventure in the fourteenth century, In: Crusaders, condottieri and cannon, 2003, p. 285-304.
Fowler, K., Medieval Mercenaries, 2001.
Mallet, M., Mercenaries and their Master. Warfare in Renaissance Italy, 1974.
Mallet, M. s. v. Mercenaries in: Maurice Keen, Medieval Warfare. A history, 1999, pp. 209-229.
Savy, N. s. v. Great Company, in Clifford J. Rogers, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology, 2010.
Knödler, J., s. v. Brabancons in Clifford J. Rogers, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology, 2010.

[@SandRhomanHistory]

Drop your doomscrolling habit: Go to the link: imprintapp.com/SandRhoman_History_LIB_1 to get 20% off an annual membership

[@anon2034]

Can you make a video on Machiavelli's failed militia? I read that they "had a few successes" but ultimately "were defeated by mercenaries" to the chagrin of Niccolo. But can't find anything specific. Great video!

[@KillerAngelPilot1]

I love your siege videos! I would absolutely love to see a video on the siege of Ceuta, the longest siege in history. I can’t seem to find any KZbinrs who have made a good video explaining in depth how the siege went

[@TheStrategos392]

Hawkwood was a terrifying mix of Sun Tzu and Machiavelli, and lived to be over 70 years old and amassed great wealth. An incredible life.

[@lolasdm6959]

Sun Tzu and Machiavelli gave similar advises

[@theliato3809]

"Captain John Hawkwood." Sounds like a name straight from a Fantasy book. No wonder his rep was so good.

[@MM22966]

Hawkwood and the White Company was popularized in English historical/fantasy fiction by the likes of Arthur Conan Doyle. Interest and historical awareness of him has flowed from that.

[@EndingSimple]

Gordon R. Dickson used him as a character in his Childe Cycle SF novels. Which is why I know about him. Interesting to learn of the real man. Btw is name was not pronounceable among non English speakers so his name was Latinised as Johannes Acutus ("John Sharp"). So there was a Sharp in Italy before there was one in Portugal.

[@ingold1470]

This is because the fantasy genre is a close relative of late Victorian historical novels, which were often written about men like Hawkwood.

[@MrVvulf]

@@EndingSimple Giovanni Acuto was what the Italians called him. As in English "Acuto" (Sharp) has the multiple meanings - dangerous as well as clever and wily. I own the Caferro book the narrator referred to many times, as well as another on Hawkwood by John Leader. It baffles me a bit why no movies have been made about his life. Fiction authors have certainly based many tales upon him, including Sir Arthur Conan Doyle ("The White Company") who created Sherlock Holmes. Chaucer's own story "The Knight" isn't based on solely on Hawkwood, but there's no doubt he was influenced by his time spent as Hawkwood's companion and fellow negotiator.

[@MM22966]

@@ingold1470 Good point.

[@Cahirable]

Hawkwood is fascinating, because he doesn't seem to have amounted to much before the 1360s, despite the advantages he had. His mother had probably been from at least the gentry, and his first wife was probably also from the gentry or nobility, but we see him brawling and "borrowing" a neighbour's horse to plough his fields. This doesn't mean he was ploughing his fields - or perhaps more likely, his brother's fields - himself, but more likely he was simply managing the farm and his brother's properties in the area. Froissart calls him "the poorest knight in the army" when the routiers attacked Avignon, so he'd been knighted between 1351 and 1360, but doesn't seem to have gathered any notable group or acted as an independent captain worth noting. From 1360 on, though, he begins to skyrocket in prominence. It would be *fascinating* to know what changed to drive him onwards. If only he'd commissioned a poem or chronicle like Bertrand du Guesclin and other prominent men of the period.

[@konstantinriumin2657]

daemonic pact is a hell of a drive

[@Cahirable]

@@konstantinriumin2657 I'm sure Hawkwood's enemies would agree with the sentiment!

[@anon2034]

@@konstantinriumin2657 Griffith is that you?

[@rune.theocracy]

@@anon2034 I was looking for these kinds of comments LOL glad I'm not the only one who thought about the 'Company of Hawk'

[@lcmiracle]

@@konstantinriumin2657 How might I serve the great lord Tzeentch, the changer of ways?

[@GAarcher]

*The OG Band of the Hawk, no comment*

[@primordialpouch1139]

Came down for this comment

[@tenshrimp]

OG the Hawk of White

[@gregoireaurelien8205]

For real in my mind I was thinking about berserk all along

[@eldorados_lost_searcher]

"So put your glasses on, Nothing will be wrong."

[@Cormano980]

Miura took heavy inspiration from famous historical figures and events

[@cartesian_doubt6230]

" In the 30 years that he served as a captain, Hawkwood's earnings ranged between 6,000 and 80,000 florins annually (in comparison, a skilled Florentine craftsman at the same time earned 30 florins a year)"

[@adrian9098]

"John Hawkwood, British knight, most prudent leader of his age and most expert in the art of war" Thats how bad badass this guy was

[@themecoptera9258]

It’s really obvious why Machiavelli hated mercenaries

[@SwampGreen14]

I mean, they were literally just bandits and marauders. Only that they would occasionally fight on your side if you paid them enough extortion money. They might also just take your extortion money and join your enemies.

[@lolasdm6959]

There is a reason why Geneva convention does not protect mercenaries

[@removedquasar650]

Ooooh John Hawkwood! Called Giovanni Acuto here on Italy

[@duncanself5111]

Hawkwood is a strong surname

[@Uberdude6666]

Very interesting video! The Angevins seems like another good example of feudal marriage-alliances being used for actual empire building. I did not know they had a cadet-branch in Hungary.

[@SB-129]

4:14 "Honey... Why is it that no matter where we go, everyone has to torment us in some way?"

[@Pentagathusosaurus]

Chrsitian Cameron's Chivalry Series is set in this era and follows the career of a largely fictional character inspired by John Hawkwood (Hawkwood is also a character in the series). He's an excellent author of historical fiction (and sci fi and fantasy) and he's a keen reenactor himself which adds a lot of authenticity to his stories (alongside doing a ton of research).

[@Cahirable]

There's a few changes made to history and occasionally a interpretations that I think are outdated or a stretch, but he's the only historical fiction author I know of who has actually gone to visit an archive to look at unpublished manuscripts as part of his research process, and his deviations are usually to highlight some aspect of medieval society that might not have otherwise been worked in so well. Definitely recommend the series!

[@awilk418]

One of my favorite series! I’m going to be sad when we say farewell to William Gold.

[@MarktheRude]

So what exactly led to the end-situation where renaissance Italy essentially became Europe's dedicated PVP zone?

[@iseeyou5061]

When France arrived

[@Swift-mr5zi]

@@iseeyou5061 I'm not sure that ended it

[@iseeyou5061]

@@Swift-mr5zi The question is what started it

[@fuferito]

A lethal combination of strong neighboring kingdoms while Italy insisted on remaining divided, yet extremely rich and productive, whose squabbling factions kept inviting foreign mercenaries or foreign crowns directly to settle their conflicts.

[@jakemocci3953]

Very wealthy city-states rather than centralized power.

[@zebwheeler5683]

Instantly here after the upload - I already know this will be great!

[@andreattafabio]

Best History Channel!

[@Arcadius-ss3zp]

Another amazing video by SandRhoman as alway. Love your work, it is gold. Please do a video on the Army of Flanders in the future.

[@voidrenon]

"GRIFIIIIIIIIIIITH!"

[@Pentagathusosaurus]

Virgin Italian Despot vs Based English Mercenary

[@vasilykatuma5689]

*versus the TYPICAL english LOOTER...

[@thenoblepoptart]

hawkwood might have been a chad but mercenaries are such a massive pain in the ass. People who know history know that the moral of “the pied piper” isn’t about not trusting strangers, it’s about always remembering to pay your freelancers…

[@MrVvulf]

It should be noted that the 130,000 florins that Hawkwood extorted from Tuscany would be worth about $25 million today. And that was just ONE of his more successful campaigns. He was one of the most interesting Englishmen of the 14th century.

[@lolasdm6959]

@@MrVvulfextort treasure from despots average mercenary W

[@brandonvallota]

I have been waiting for this since I first found about them in the Tsardoms mod

[@user-jw6fm7pq3x]

Hawk Tuah algorithm must have brought this into my recommendations 😂😂👍

[@Thraim.]

I, for one, welcome our new mercenary overlords.

[@MythicTales993]

This is one of the most useful videos I've ever watched. Thank you for sharing!

[@Doc_Tar]

I've seen Hawkwood's monument in Florence have always wondered how a man so far from home could rise to such heights as to be memorialized by the people he often extracted wealth from. Now I know, thanks for this video.

[@ThePaculdop]

Damn, even before the coming of the Empire, the English were already making waves.

[@CMitchell808]

England has been a player in European politics for as long as there has been an England.

[@ThePaculdop]

@CMitchell808 Not just a player. But a Prominent Champ of a player at times.

[@andreoliveira685]

@@ThePaculdop Conquered by Romans, then conquered by anglo-saxons, then by vikings, then by Normans, then tried to conquer France but failed... went on plundering France and there's this mercenary in Italy. Two centururies later were using piracy to try and get some level play with the great empires. Got lucky in the 18th and 19th century and got finally beaten back to almost oblivion by the nazis.. Champ?

[@stevshaboba7476]

@@andreoliveira685 Got lucky in the 18th and 19th century ? Is that what you tell yourself

[@andreoliveira685]

@@stevshaboba7476 uh... hurt feelings... love it. I have some time now so let me try and list it for you. - by the end of the 17th century England got it's first indian colony as a gift from portugal and a great reform was done by Cromwell - the Dutch fought bravely against the Spanish empire andEngland got a lot of opportunities from it - Irish and scotch people loved making silly regiments and dying for the king - Spanish war of succession led to some chaos in mainland europe and england benefited from it - technical developments on the wool industry and england benefited from it - a great age of maritime trade issued and england found the spanish empire in decline - no mass media and england benefited from it by exterminating local people in oceania and north america - napoleon causes chaos in mainland europe and england benefited from it - liberal revolutions in europe and americas and england benefited from it To be fair the English did a good job benefiting from all of it... but in 1946 was desperately begging for a loan from the US.

[@zetectic7968]

Very interesting & informative about a chapter of history I was unfamiliar with.

[@jeremiedelusignan950]

Hello ! I’m a descendant of John Hawkwood. His story always fascinated me. Thank you really much for this video about his company and his fights.

[@omarab837]

How are you related to him?

[@kimberlyperrotis8962]

The Italians had trouble pronouncing Hawkwood, so the called him by the closest-sounding Italian word, Acuto, which means needle. Very apt.

[@SandileNgwenya-gv7nx]

Acuto meant Sharp I think

[@sarahsidney1988]

Great video

[@Stroopwaffe1]

Great, I think You piqued my intrest, liked and subbed.

[@bigsarge2085]

Incredible!

[@PennyWoo-rr6io]

another sandrhoman W

[@Gudha_Ismintis]

best vid of the channel

[@Vhite]

This guy sounds few war crimes short of being the real world Griffith.

[@rune.theocracy]

Except it seems he didn't aim to create his own kingdom but yes! I was screaming Griffith the whole video

[@michaelrredford]

Thanks!

[@Swedishmafia101MemeCorporation]

His drip do be impeccable, I must say

[@LucHywel-xw5tw]

Thank you for this. If anyone's very (very) much into mercenary and Late Medieval Italian and English warfare I strongly recommend Schwerpunkt's videos series. Keep up with the great work

[@dale6947]

I second this recommendation.

[@simoncejka9121]

Thanks for recomendation

[@MajesticOak]

The guy's life showed up in the English textbook New Concept English, which led to tens of millions of people outside of Europe to learn of his tales. He was also mentioned a few times in the Childe cycle series of sci-fi novels, leading to many American sci-fi fans to learn of his exploits.

[@joshuaverret4096]

I am in love with the mercenary series!!!

[@HannibalBarcaRTW]

Did the English mercenary rank and file settle in Italy or did they travel back to England?

[@danielchen9094]

Great video on a very slept on part of history. Can you also please do a documentary about Francesco Sforza?

[@cc0767]

Imagine living through this era as a normal person and getting raided by mercenaries every other day. Life must have truly sucked.

[@SandileNgwenya-gv7nx]

Not really tho it's just those unlucky towns but in usual wars most people wouldn't be affected at all

[@bobskywalker2707]

THE WHITE COMPANY LETS GOO

[@iseeyou5061]

Right now the work seems focused on Italy. But would there any chance for a more German region focused content?

[@murrayscott9546]

Guns, Germs and Steel. Recommended by me, who is nobody. A real deep - dive. Not the easiest read but worth it.

[@Lunibruniful]

I guess theres a learning curve for everything

[@klappspatenkamikaze]

@sandrhomanhistory interesting video, just one strange detail: do you have a source for the multi-person-pike-usage mentioned ~7:00? I've heard it a few times but never with a source.

[@SandRhomanHistory]

We mention two medieval chroniclers in the video. I think both describe it, if I remember correctly. For a modern source, check out Wiliam Caferro (see bibliography in the description). He explains this well in his works.

[@user-sv3yb7uq9n]

Once I saw there's another mercenary masterpiece by SandRhoman, I immediately press the like button. It would have been very interesting to hear Hawkwood speaking Italian...

[@eldorados_lost_searcher]

Hawkwood, sounding suspiciously like a Tarantino character: "Bon-joor-no."

[@murrayscott9546]

The guy liked the action and was good at it

[@corpchannel2523]

Can you do a Video about Longbowmen(Welsh Bow And English Longbow)

[@MBP1918]

insane lore

[@angun703]

Hawk? White?...... GRIFFITH

[@lincs4life]

I'm here after reading the chivalry books series.

[@iseeyou5061]

As rich as Italian was, can they even afford John Hawkwood payment? And if they could, for how long?

[@Sarsgnu]

Chaucer, the writer?! Maybe he’s allegorical, but we won’t hold that against him!

[@V.B.Squire]

From White Company to Blackwater

[@Lo-tf6qt]

Did Hawkwood occassionally say "Gives me conniptions" too?

[@constable117]

LETS GO LADS!!!!! 🇬🇧🇬🇧🇬🇧

[@guillembonet3350]

He might habe been the inspiration for Griffith from Berserk

[@EuTrabalhoParaSagres510]

They had the longest pikes Except maybe the Landsknechts of course 😂

[@clintmoor422]

This is going to be great. I'm already seeing a bunch of Italians who will come in and claim Hawkwood was not that important.. as always.

[@justdracir8197]

@SandRhomanHistory i have a question is this an authorized or someone from you guys making a german version of the channel? Or did i find an imposter? www.youtube.com/@SandRhomanGeschichte/videos

[@SandRhomanHistory]

that‘s us! its‘s Roman doing the voiceovers!

[@justdracir8197]

@@SandRhomanHistory oh good to know. I was super confused after i typed in SandRhoman and saw 2 channels ^^"

[@54032Zepol]

The swag company

[@morriganmhor5078]

I wonder why nobody talks about germs that got from the Americas (and other continents) to Europe. It would be a rather interesting piece(s) about the Iustinian´s plague or the Black Death (cca 1350).

[@rosameltrozo5889]

I thought you were speaking of germans

[@rosameltrozo5889]

I thought you were speaking of germans

[@Semperiratus]

[chuckles in gallowglass]

[@anon2034]

Yes, yes. This is all well and good, but does he have a behelit?

[@avus-kw2f213]

8:43 why can’t modern war be like that : (

[@Ravenclanner]

Aight bro. I signed up for the imprint thing and you got credit. You know what that means. You better pat yourself on the back and get back to god's work!!

[@megalonoobiacinc4863]

There's a pretty dark manga which goes by his name, too bad it seems to have ended

[@user-ew7pm7kd8h]

Bro was so rich he won every single band for band with entire sovereign nation's

[@TheSilentPrince-mt5mx]

I'll have to pay a visit to St. Peter's Church in Sible Hedingham to look at the arch which honour's him. I keep meaning to go to The Church of St Nicholas in nearby Castle Hedingham to pay respects to the de Vere family members commemorated there (I have reasons) and Alderford Water Mill so it will make a good day out.

[@CBass-mn5dy]

Damn...they were Blackrock before Blackrock.

[@mariushunger8755]

Has anyone read doyle‘s white company? Is it any good?

[@Kingedwardiii2003]

4:00 Englishmen going on holiday to Italy what can go wrong

[@fuferito]

It's amazing to read how quaintly out of touch (Saint) Catherine of Siena seems about her changing world when she writes to "Giovanni Acuto" (John Hawkwood) about going on Crusade instead of waging war in Italy; _Dearest and sweetest brother in Christ Jesus, it would be a great thing now if you would withdraw a little into yourself, and consider, and reflect how great are the pains and anguish which you have endured by being in the service and pay of the devil. Now my soul desires that you should change your way of life, and take the pay and the cross of Christ crucified, you and all your followers and companions; so that you may be Christ's company, to march against the infidel dogs who possess our Holy Place..."_

[@maxbench3089]

it is a lovely video and I am thankful for it, and that is the main thing, and it will be even better if the Italian pronunciation was accurate. Why not? that is not so difficult, just talk with any Italian person. I would be happy to help, and I don't want anything for that, zero. Just the fact you are saying the right names is enough for me.

[@KingTrouser]

One thing I want to know, is these mercenaries regularly accumulate vast sums of wealth, only to need to go on the plunder again a few years later. What the hell were they spending all their money on??

[@awilk418]

The same thing soldiers always blow their money on: Dodge Chargers with 35% interest.

[@xmaniac99]

An yes good olde Giovanni

[@user-yg8ql6er5l]

How come you never talk about the Mexican free lancers and their contribution to medieval European art and history!

[@morriganmhor5078]

What Aztec on horse Are you talking ago?

[@user-yg8ql6er5l]

@@morriganmhor5078 Mexicans!

[@54032Zepol]

Swag 😎

[@estebancastellino3284]

👍

[@carnifex2005]

The most I got from this video is that the Italians were way too rich for their own good.

[@RichardPhillips1066]

Conan Doyle wrote a book about them

[@feral7523]

Hawkwood is the great great great uncle of Hawk Tauh.

[@konstantinriumin2657]

John Hawkwood was like Prigozhin... Mercenary, but really in service of his lord.

[@AdventureThroughLife]

Band of the Hawk?

[@alex-E7WHU]

Hawkwind surely..?

[@ashbirk4681]

Did anyone else notice the similarity to Bezerk or is it just me?

[@uelibinde]

it's the inspiration for the story.

[@J.D-g8.1]

Great at always. Say, i wonder how they fought in pre ancient times, before the stone was invented? Before the Stone age they probably didnt have large armies, but we can assume they still fought. But considering they didnt have stone tools, and its widely agreed that stone was discovered before wood, thus no wood tools neither.

[@J.D-g8.1]

And they couldnt play rock paper scissors before the stone age; and then only rock stone pebble. Strange times.

[@mileslong3904]

I just like to say the ads were horrendous.

[@whatismynameohwhatismyname]

AI art?

[@DjAkho]

Hawk tuah

[@XxLIVRAxX]

He spat on those Italian autocrat

[@MrHestichs]

I love this channel but it has had some issues with quality control in my opinion. The pronunciation and spelling in english has not been great. I think you should either commit someone to quality control or do it in your native language with subtitles.

[@Rahsya-wi4zk]

Just because we use english as international language..

[@zaku2principality0fze0n6]

Dude was the inspiration for griffith and the band of the hawk in berzerk

[@The_ZeroLine]

Hawkwood was good, but comparing him to Hannibal is not just a bridge too far. It’s blasphemy. Anyway, I feel like you’ve posted this video before, but maybe I’m confusing this with another channel’s video. I’m subscribed to at least 10 channels that put out similar content.

[@b.h.abbott-motley2427]

Cajamarca wasn't much of a battle as the Incas were mostly or entirely unarmed. It was more of an ambush or massacre.

[@nibiru27]

28 seconds and only 1 view? bro fell off

[@raffaellointernational2401]

Very embelished/exagerated recount. Most of the hawkwoods exploits/wealth was fiction from florentine writers in an attempt to project military power to their neghbors. He never received the huge majority of payments due to his inability to fulfil contracts, in fact, he died in relative poverty. The majority of his exploits were in reality very insignificant and military actions were just skirmishes. In the battle of castagnaro he was one of 13 captains, he only commanded 1/11 of the force.

[@uelibinde]

yo, that's literally what he says in the video. He actually quotes Caferro who I had the pleasure of meeting in a seminar myself. He is the expert on this topic. This guy actually got pretty much everything right, down to how he calculated the value of florins later on in the video (16:53 for example). He even got the propaganda part right (attachment to Florence in a spiteful move as the loser in a war against Milan). Also at Castagnaro, Hawkwood was in command although not all of the troops were from his personal estates but does that really matter? He still had to make the decisions for the other soldiers... So, I'd say this video is just fine.

[@raffaellointernational2401]

At castagnaro he was not in command, he was one of 13 captains. Only paduan lords and captains could command communal troops. Carrara commanded the army. Caferro has produced a variety of fictitious conclusions from his romanticized works, that are routinely quoted as history, he sells books. Hawkwoods italian misnomer, 'acuto' which meant cunning, became in popular language a slur intending coward/beggar. It is still prominently used in southern italian dialects in the form of accattone. As for all his estates, after his death his children did not inherit a single one of the many claimed estates, so it is likely he never actually received any of those estates and was instead given a post as castellan for a select few. I'm generally a big fan of this channel, but this time round they definitely deviated into the fantastical over the historical.

[@binbows2258]

Why would you (indirectly) promote "Guns, Germs, and Steel" in your sponsorship segment? It's a terrible book full of misinformation and bias, and to be honest it discredits your entire channel by even suggesting that you would seriously attempt to extract any kind of fact or knowledge from that book.

[@vinz4066]

Could you please give an example of why that book is bad ?

[@nevisysbryd7450]

​@@vinz4066 "What are some of the main Anthropological criticisms of Jared Diamond's Guns, Germs and Steel?" See R€ddit thread by that name for an introductory primer. Suffice it to say, the vast majority of the book is either factually incorrect, takes things out of context, it is flatly inferior to earlier academic work that Diamond would have been aware of had he done remotely adequate study rather than relying on very shoddy research to corroborate the confirmation bias of a laymen's pet hypothesis.

[@binbows2258]

@@vinz4066 Since nevis already said something about the book, I would like to point out that the author of "Guns, Germs, and Steel" is a scientist who is spreading his focus (or lack thereof) across many fields and has no unique, or even semi-unique, specialization in historical works. He's a professor of geography, and wrote his 1961 PhD thesis on the biophysics of membranes in gallbladders. I don't think he has any sort of official education in history. Looks like he's mostly into geography, which is very evident due to his overbearing geographic determinism.

[@christianweibrecht6555]

Why did Italian city states rarely produce worthwhile military commanders?

[@vincentmalasawmkimajongte7489]

Maybe because most of the Italian ruling class were more concerned with Mercantile activities instead of training for war like Knights of other nations.